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Plate 1.1 Examples of now redundant village pumps once widespread in their use in Britain: (a) the wooden pump on Queen’s Square, Attleborough, Norfolk, enclosed 1897; and (b) the large Shalders pump used in the days before tarmac for dust‐laying on the old turnpike (Newmarket Road) at Cringleford, near Norwich, Norfolk.

Plate 1.2 Arcade of the aqueduct Aqua Claudia situated in the Parco degli Acquedotti, 8 km east of Rome. The aqueduct, which is built of cut stone masonry, also carries the brick‐faced concrete Anio Novus, added later on top of the Aqua Claudia.

Plate 1.3 The baroque mostra of the Trevi Fountain in Rome. Designed by Nicola Salvi in 1732, and fed by the Vergine aqueduct, it depicts Neptune’s chariots being led by Tritons with sea horses, one wild and one docile, representing the various moods of the sea.

Plate 1.4 Global map of epithermal neutron currents measured on the planet Mars obtained by the NASA Odyssey Neutron Spectrometer orbiter. Epithermal neutrons provide the most sensitive measure of hydrogen in surface soils. Inspection of the global epithermal map shows high hydrogen content (blue colour) in surface soils south of about 60° latitude and in a ring that almost surrounds the north polar cap. The maximum intensity in the northern ring coincides with a region of high albedo and low thermal inertia, which are both required for near‐surface water ice to be stable. Also seen are large regions near the equator that contain enhanced near‐surface hydrogen, which is most likely in the form of chemically and/or physically bound water and/or hydroxyl radicals since water ice is not stable near the equator. (Source: Reproduced from Los Alamos National Laboratory. © Copyright 2011 Los Alamos National Security, LLC. All rights reserved.)

Plate 1.5 Hose reel and rain gun irrigation system applied to a potato field in Norfolk, eastern England on 30 May 2020 and supplied by groundwater from the underlying Cretaceous Chalk aquifer.

Plate 1.6 NASA Landsat‐7 satellite image of the Ouargla Oasis, Algeria on 20 December, 2000. In this false‐colour image, red indicates vegetation (the brighter the red, the more dominant the vegetation). Pale pink and orange tones show the desert landscape of sand and rock outcrops. The satellite image shows date palms surrounding the urban area of Ouargla and Chott Aïn el Beïda in the south‐west, a saline depression that has traditionally collected irrigation runoff, as well as the proliferation of irrigated land to the north and east of Ouargla in the vicinity of Chott Oum el Raneb. The width of the image shown is approximately 40 km. (Source: Reproduced from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD. NASA images created by Jesse Allen and Rob Simmon, using Landsat data provided by the United States Geological Survey. Caption by Michon Scott.)

Plate 1.7 Estimated depth in metres below ground level (m bgl) to groundwater in Africa (Bonsor and MacDonald 2011). (Source: Bonsor, H.C. and MacDonald, A.M. (2011). An initial estimate of depth to groundwater across Africa, 2011, British Geological Survey. © 2011, British Geological Survey.)

Plate 1.8 Aquifer productivity in litres per second (L s⁻¹) for Africa showing the likely interquartile range for boreholes drilled and sited using appropriate techniques and expertise (Bonsor and MacDonald 2011). (Source: Bonsor, H.C. and MacDonald, A.M. (2011). An initial estimate of depth to groundwater across Africa, 2011, British Geological Survey. © 2011, British Geological Survey.)

Plate 2.1 Aerial view of artesian springs and spring mounds west of Lake Eyre South (137 °E, 29 °S) in the Great Artesian Basin in northern South Australia (see Box 2.11) showing the flowing artesian Beresford Spring (A in foreground), the large, 45 m high Beresford Hill with an extinct spring vent (C), the flowing artesian Warburton Spring (E), and the flat topped hill (F) capped by spring carbonate deposits (tufa) overlying Bulldog Shale. The diameter of the upper part of the circular Beresford Hill, above the rim, is about 400 m. Luminescence ages of 13.9 ± 1 ka were determined for samples from the carbonate mound of the actively flowing Beresford Spring (B) and of 128 ± 33 ka from the north west side of the dry extinct Beresford Hill spring carbonate mound deposits (D) (Prescott and Habermehl 2008). (Source: Prescott, J.R. and Habermehl, M.A. (2008) Luminescence dating of spring mound deposits in the southwestern Great Artesian Basin, northern South Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 55, 167–181. Reproduced with permission from Taylor & Francis.)

Plate 2.2 Big Bubbler Spring, with its spring outlet on top of an elevated mound, located west of Lake Eyre South in the Great Artesian Basin in northern South Australia (see Box 2.11). The spring outflow runs into a small channel and forms small wetlands (to the right). Hamilton Hill and its cap of spring carbonate deposits is visible in the background and is similar to Beresford Hill (Plate 2.1) located approximately 30 km to the north‐west (Prescott and Habermehl 2008). (Source: Prescott, J.R. and Habermehl, M.A. (2008) Luminescence dating of spring mound deposits in the southwestern Great Artesian Basin, northern South Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 55, 167–181. Reproduced with permission from Taylor & Francis.)

Plate 2.3 1 : 50 000 000 Transboundary Aquifers of the World (Special Edition for the 7th World Water Forum 2015) map. There are 592 identified transboundary aquifers, including transboundary ‘groundwater bodies’ as defined by the European Union Water Framework Directive, underlying almost every nation. Areas of transboundary aquifer extent are shown with brown shading and areas of transboundary groundwater body extent are shown with green shading, with overlapping aquifers and groundwater bodies shown in gold shading. Individual blue squares and green circles, respectively, indicate small aquifers and groundwater bodies (<6000 km²). The thematic inset maps combine, from left to right, respectively, the delineations of transboundary aquifers of the world with maps of climate zones, groundwater resources and recharge, and population at 1 : 135 000 000. For more information on individual transboundary aquifers and groundwater bodies and an extended view of the small aquifers and groundwater bodies, visit IGRAC’s online Global Groundwater Information System: (https://ggis.un-igrac.org/ggis-viewer/viewer/tbamap/public/default). (Source: Transboundary Aquifers of the World, Special Edition for the 7 World Water Forum 2015, IGRAC. © 2015, IGRAC.)

Plate 2.4 Groundwater discharge in the intertidal zone of Kinvara Bay on 15 September 2010 at Dunguaire Castle, County Galway, Ireland.

Plate 2.5 Lake Caherglassaun (for location see Box 2.14, Fig. 2.66) responding to high tide as observed at 14.53 h on 13 September 2006 in the karst aquifer of the Gort Lowlands, County Galway, Ireland.

Plate 2.6 The Carran Depression and turlough (a fluctuating, groundwater level‐controlled ephemeral lake) on 13 September 2006, The Burren, County Clare, Ireland.

Plate 2.7 1 : 25 000 000 Groundwater Resources of the World (2008 edition) map showing the distribution of large aquifer systems (excluding Antarctica). Blue shading represents major groundwater basins, green shading areas with complex hydrogeological structure and brown shading areas with local and shallow aquifers. Darker and lighter colours represent areas with high and low groundwater recharge rates, respectively, generally above and below 100 mm a⁻¹. For further discussion see Section 2.17. (Source: Wall map “Groundwater Resources of the World”, Global groundwater wall map, 2008. © 2008, WHYMAP.)

Plate 2.8 1 : 120 000 000 Groundwater Recharge (1961–1990) per Capita (2000) map showing groundwater recharge in m³ capita⁻¹ a⁻¹ aggregated for countries or sub‐national units (excluding Antarctica). (Source: Wall map “Groundwater Resources of the World”, Global groundwater wall map, 2008. © 2008, WHYMAP.)

Plate 3.1 Variable‐density groundwater flow simulations to evaluate the efficiency of different styles of salinization processes in layered aquifer systems on the continental shelf during and after transgression of the sea (see Section 3.6.1 and Fig. 3.12). The upper panel shows the model set‐up representing a slightly seaward dipping layered aquifer system in which the left‐hand boundary represents fresh, meteoric water originating as recharge in the hinterland. The right‐hand boundary represents coastal seawater. In the initial steady‐state situation (t = 0 years), the sideways sag of the saline water underneath the sea floor results in a tongue of saline water in the deeper inland aquifers. When sea‐level rises, seawater starts to sink into the upper aquifer with a characteristic finger pattern indicative of free‐convection replacing fresh water. This process of salinization is rapid compared to the salinization process in the deeper aquifer which only proceeds slowly by transverse movement of the saline‐fresh interface. The simulation shows that it takes millennia for these processes to result in complete salinization of sub‐seafloor aquifers which explains the current occurrence of fresh water in many parts of the continental shelf (e.g Fig. 3.13).

Plate 3.2 Example of a numerical simulation illustrating aspects of the hydrodynamics within sedimentary basins during glaciation. (a) A bowl‐shaped sedimentary basin is conceptualized consisting of several thick aquifers and aquitards. This basin is overridden by an ice‐sheet, which results in a complex hydrodynamic response. A deformation of the finite‐element mesh accommodates the flexure of the sedimentary basin caused by the weight of the ice‐sheet. (b) The high hydraulic head at the ice‐sheet base is propagated into the aquifer units in the basin and results in a strong groundwater flow component away from the base of the ice‐sheet. At the same time, the increasing weight exerted as the ice‐sheet advances results in a build‐up of hydraulic head in the aquitard units in the basin which is considerably more compressible than the aquifers. Consequently, groundwater is moving away from these aquitard units. In this model simulation, the lower aquitard is more compressible than the upper aquitard (Bense and Person 2008). (Source: Adapted from Bense, V.F. and Person, M.A. (2008) Transient hydrodynamics in inter‐cratonic sedimentary basins during glacial cycles. Journal of Geophysical Research 113, F04005.)

Plate 6.1 Global map of the groundwater footprint of aquifers. Six aquifers that are important to agriculture are shown at the bottom of the map (at the same scale as the global map) with the surrounding grey areas indicating the groundwater footprint proportionally at the same scale. The ratio GF/A_A indicates widespread stress of groundwater resources and/or groundwater‐dependent ecosystems. The inset histogram shows that GF is less than A_A for most aquifers (Gleeson et al. 2012). (Source: Gleeson, T., Wada, Y., Bierkens, M.F.P. and van Beek, L.P.H. (2012) Water balance of global aquifers revealed by groundwater footprint. Nature 488, 197–200.)

Plate 7.1 Temperature and fluid electrical conductivity (EC) logs in the Outokumpu Deep Drill Hole, eastern Finland. The 2516 m deep research borehole was drilled in 2004–2005 into a Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary, igneous and ophiolite‐related sequence of rocks in a classical ore province with massive Cu‐Co‐Zn sulphide deposits. The ‘Sample EC’ column shows the results of drill borehole water sampling in 2008. Arrows pointing to the left indicate interpreted depths of saline formation fluid flowing into the borehole and arrows to the right indicate fluid flowing out of the borehole. Arrows pointing up and down indicate the flow direction in the borehole. The ‘Fractures’ column indicates the interpreted fractures from sonic, electrical potential and calliper logs. The ‘Hydraulic tests’ column shows the test intervals and hydraulic permeabilities from packer experiments during drilling breaks. The ‘Lithology’ column shows the rock types (blue: metasediments; green and orange: ophiolite‐derived serpentinite and skarn rocks; pink: pegmatitic granite). (Source: Adapted from Ahonen et al. 2004.)

Plate 7.2 Automated time‐lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ALERT) monitoring results during an interruption in groundwater pumping in an operational Lower Cretaceous sand and gravel quarry in West Sussex, England. Two times are shown: (a) t_a and (b) t_b imaged 15 days apart, as well as (c) the log resistivity ratio (t_b/t_a) plot showing sub‐surface change. Water levels shown are for piezometers P1 and P6. Dashed lines show the minimum and maximum water levels estimated from the log resistivity ratio section (Chambers et al. 2015). (Source: Adapted from Chambers, J.E., Meldrum, P.I., Wilkinson, P.B. et al. (2015) Spatial monitoring of groundwater drawdown and rebound associated with quarry dewatering using automated time‐lapse electrical resistivity tomography and distribution guided clustering. Engineering Geology 193, 412–420.)

Plate 7.3 Satellite‐derived images of (a) shallow groundwater storage and (b) root zone soil moisture content in Europe on 22 June 2020 as measured by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow On (GRACE‐FO). GRACE‐FO employs a pair of satellites that detect the movement of water based on variations in the Earth’s gravity field by measuring subtle shifts in gravity from month to month. Variations in land topography, ocean tides and the addition or subtraction of water change the distribution of the Earth’s mass and gravity field. Measurements are integrated with data from the original GRACE mission (2002–2017), together with current and historical ground‐based observations using a sophisticated numerical model of water and energy processes at the land surface. The colours depict the wetness percentile to illustrate the status of groundwater storage and soil moisture content compared to long‐term records for the month. Blue areas have more abundant water than usual, while orange and red areas have less. The darkest red areas represent dry conditions that should occur only 2% of the time (a return period of about once every 50 years). Much of Europe experienced drought in the summers of 2018 and 2019, followed by little snow in the winter of 2019–2020, the warmest on record. As a consequence, much of the continent began 2020 with a significant water deficit, with the threat of a groundwater drought and implications for maize and wheat yields compared to the five‐year average in a number of countries. (Source: Signs of Drought in European Groundwater, NASA Earth Observatory, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146888/signs‐of‐drought‐in‐european‐groundwater?src=eoa‐iotd.)

Plate 8.1 Replica pump with missing handle (see Plate 1b for comparison) in present‐day Broadwick Street, Soho, London. The handle from the original Broad Street pump was famously removed on 8 September 1854 on the recommendation of Dr John Snow (1813–1858) who had concluded that the outbreaks of deaths from cholera among residents of the parishes of St James and St Anne were due to drinking contaminated water from the Broad Street well. From his investigation into the epidemiology of the cholera outbreak around the well, Snow gained valuable evidence that cholera is spread by contamination of drinking water. Subsequent research by others showed that the well was contaminated by sewage from an adjacent cess pool at 40 Broad Street entering the 1.83 m diameter, 8.8 m deep, brick‐lined well sunk in sand above London Clay. This case represents one of the first, if not the first, study of an incident of groundwater contamination in Great Britain (Price 2004).

Plate 9.1 (a) and (b) Location of the Kaibab Plateau in the Colorado Plateau physiographic province (maximum elevation of 2807 m) north of the Grand Canyon, Arizona, United States, including the outline of the Grand Canyon National Park. (c) Shaded relief image of the Kaibab Plateau and surrounding region with approximate locations of major faults in the area. (d) and (e) Two karst aquifer vulnerability maps of the deep (approximately between 650 and 1000 m below ground surface), semi‐confined Kaibab Plateau R (Redwall‐Muav) aquifer system created, respectively, with the original concentration‐overburden‐precipitation (COP) method described by Vías et al. (2006) and the modified COP method of Jones et al. (2019) that uses sinkhole density as well as the location of faulted and fractured rock to model intrinsic vulnerability. Note that the modified model has a reduced overall intrinsic vulnerability to contamination and greater spatial variation of vulnerability (Jones et al. 2019). (Source: Adapted from Jones, N.A., Hansen, J., Springer, A.E. et al. (2019) Modeling intrinsic vulnerability of complex karst aquifers: modifying the COP method to account for sinkhole density and fault location. Hydrogeology Journal 27, 2857–2868.)

Plate 10.1 An example of a dune slack at Winterton Dunes National Nature Reserve on the east coast of Norfolk, eastern England, observed in September 2020. Dune slack (or pond) habitats are a type of wetland that appear as damp or wet hollows left between sand dunes where, as here, the groundwater reaches or approaches the surface of the sand. The unusual acidic dunes and heaths at Winterton are internationally important for the rare groups of plants and animals which they support. The temporary pools in the dune slacks provide breeding sites for nationally important colonies of natterjack toads. The natterjack toad Epidalea calamita is often associated with dune slacks. To breed successfully, natterjacks require warmer water such as found in shallow dune slacks.

Plate 10.2 Multi‐model mean changes in: (a) precipitation (mm/day), (b) soil moisture content (%), (c) runoff (mm/day) and (d) evaporation (mm/day). To indicate consistency in the sign of change, regions are stippled where at least 80% of models agree on the sign of the mean change. Changes are annual means for the medium, A1B scenario ‘greenhouse gas’ emissions scenario for the period 2080–2099 relative to 1980–1999. Soil moisture and runoff changes are shown at land points with valid data from at least 10 models (Collins et al. 2007). (Source: Collins, W.D., Friedlingstein, P., Gaye, A.T. et al. (2007) Global climate projections, Chapter 10. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning et al.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 747–846. © 2007, Cambridge University Press.)

Plate 10.3 (a) Map showing global land‐ocean temperature anomalies in 2019. Regional temperature anomalies are compared with the average base period (1951–1980) (Source: NASA (2020). 2019 was the second warmest year on record. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146154/2019‐was‐the‐second‐warmest‐year‐on‐record (accessed 13 September 2020).) (b) NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) graph showing global surface temperature anomalies from 1880 through to 2013 compared to the base period from 1951 to 1980. The thin red line shows the annual temperature anomaly, while the thicker red line shows the five‐year running average. (Source: Global Temperature Anomaly, 1880–2013, NASA Earth Observatory, NASA.)