Читать книгу Hydrogeology - Kevin M. Hiscock - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Fig. 1.1 The achievement of sustainable groundwater development through the...Fig. 1.2 Lady's Well in Coquetdale, northern England (National Grid Referen...Fig. 1.3 Longitudinal section of a qanat (Beaumont 1968 and Biswas 1972)....Fig. 1.4 Irrigation canal supplied with water by a qanat or falaj in Oman....Fig. 1.5 Map of the general geology in the vicinity of Rome showing the loc...Fig. 1.6 Baroque‐style depiction of the interlaced systems of air, fire and ...Fig. 1.7 Schematic diagram of the control of seasonal melting and freezing ...Fig. 1.8 The hydrological cycle. The global water cycle has three major pat...Fig. 1.9 The distribution of water at or near the Earth's surface. Only a v...Fig. 1.10 Conceptual diagram showing hypothetical age distributions in the ...Fig. 1.11 1960–2000 trends in total global water demand (right axis, indexe...Fig. 1.12 Trends in water abstractions (fresh and saline) by water use cate...Fig. 1.13 Location map of the North China Plain showing the distribution of...Fig. 1.14 Cross‐section of the North China Plain showing the general ...Fig. 1.15 Collection of water for domestic use from a hand‐pumped tube well...Fig. 1.16 The location of the IGB alluvial aquifer system (MacDonald et al. ...Fig. 1.17 Groundwater level variations in metres below ground level (m bgl) ...

2 Chapter 2Fig. 2.1 Types of porosity with relation to rock texture: (a) well‐sorted se...Fig. 2.2 Relation between median grain size and water storage properties of ...Fig. 2.3 Laboratory determined values of hydraulic conductivity as a functio...Fig. 2.4 Examples of isotropy, anisotropy and heterogeneity showing the infl...Fig. 2.5 Four possible combinations of heterogeneity and anisotropy describi...Fig. 2.6 Permeameter apparatus for determining the hydraulic conductivity of...Fig. 2.7 Macroscopic (Darcian) approach to the analysis of groundwater flow ...Fig. 2.8 Alluvial aquifer bounded by impermeable bedrock.Fig. 2.9 Municipal waste disposal site contaminating a sand and gravel aquif...Fig. 2.10 Conceptual models to represent a fractured rock system. The fractu...Fig. 2.11 Values of Reynolds number, R_e, at various velocities and conduit d...Fig. 2.12 The disappearance of the upper River Fergus at An Clab, south‐east...Fig. 2.13 Block diagram showing the occurrence of groundwater in karst aquif...Fig. 2.14 Conceptual classification of karst aquifers from a consideration o...Fig. 2.15 Six types of sinkholes and their typical cross‐sections. (a) Solut...Fig. 2.16 Double‐decker bus with its front wheels in the air that sank into ...Fig. 2.17 Idealised diagram of the progressive development of a natural solu...Fig. 2.18 Work done in moving a unit mass of fluid from the standard state t...Fig. 2.19 Relation between hydraulic head, h, pressure head, ψ, and ele...Fig. 2.20 Condition of pressure head, ψ, for the unsaturated and satura...Fig. 2.21 Determination of groundwater flow direction and hydraulic head gra...Fig. 2.22 Sketch map of the surface of the water table in an unconfined aqui...Fig. 2.23 Simple rules for flow net construction for the cases of (a) an imp...Fig. 2.24 Flow net constructed for groundwater flow beneath a dam in a homog...Fig. 2.25 In (a) the hydraulic conductivity ellipse for a homogeneous, aniso...Fig. 2.26 Refraction of groundwater flow lines at a geological boundary.Fig. 2.27 Refraction of groundwater flow lines across a layered aquifer syst...Fig. 2.28 Map of the potentiometric surface of the Chalk aquifer underlying ...Fig. 2.29 Cross‐section showing four types of groundwater conditions. A wate...Fig. 2.30 Perched and inverted water table conditions developed within a san...Fig. 2.31 Schematic geological section across the London Basin. The vertical...Fig. 2.32 Maps of the Chalk potentiometric surface in London showing groundw...Fig. 2.33 Variation in groundwater level at Trafalgar Square (borehole TQ28/...Fig. 2.34 Schematic hydrogeological cross‐section of the Qu’Appelle Valley a...Fig. 2.35 Block diagram showing the final stage of evolution of tributary va...Fig. 2.36 Schematic representation of storativity in (a) a confined aquifer ...Fig. 2.37 Total stress, effective stress and fluid pressure at the top of a ...Fig. 2.38 Conceptual model of the hydrogeology of the Central Valley of Cali...Fig. 2.39 Map showing land subsidence in the Central Valley of California (W...Fig. 2.40 Volumes of land subsidence in the major subsiding areas of the San...Fig. 2.41 Monthly groundwater storage anomalies (mm) for the Sacramento and ...Fig. 2.42 Hydrogeological cross‐section showing the multi‐layered aquifer sy...Fig. 2.43 (a) Average groundwater level for the Tehran Plain between 1984 an...Fig. 2.44 Unit volume (elemental control volume) for flow through porous mat...Fig. 2.45 Definition sketch of steady flow through a uniform thickness, homo...Fig. 2.46 Definition sketch of steady flow through a uniform thickness, homo...Fig. 2.47 Definition sketch of steady flow in a homogeneous unconfined aquif...Fig. 2.48 Definition sketch of steady flow to two parallel streams from a ho...Fig. 2.49 Groundwater flow net for a two‐dimensional vertical cross‐section ...Fig. 2.50 Diagram showing the influence of hummocky topography in producing ...Fig. 2.51 Schematic cross‐section of the Lincolnshire Limestone aquifer in e...Fig. 2.52 Map of the location and extent of the Great Artesian Basin, Austra...Fig. 2.53 Map showing lateral extent of hydrogeological units forming the Gr...Fig. 2.54 Simplified cross‐section of the Great Artesian Basin showing the p...Fig. 2.55 Map showing areas of recharge and natural spring discharge togethe...Fig. 2.56 Types of springs (Ford and Williams 1989).Fig. 2.57 (a) Geological section at Gale Common, South Yorkshire showing a s...Fig. 2.58 The overflow of thermal spring water adjacent to the King’s Bath s...Fig. 2.59 The King’s Spring (or Sacred Spring) emerging into the King’s Bath...Fig. 2.60 Conceptual model for the origin of the Bath thermal springs. The n...Fig. 2.61 (a) Hydrogeological map of the north‐east of Salisbury Plain showi...Fig. 2.62 Schematic illustration of a transboundary aquifer (Puri et al. 200...Fig. 2.63 Map of (a) outcrop and (b) cross‐section of the Guarani Aquifer Sy...Fig. 2.64 Schematic diagram of the processes associated with submarine groun...Fig. 2.65 Location maps of: (a) Ireland; and (b) bay areas with submarine gr...Fig. 2.66 Routes of groundwater tracer inputs in the vicinity of Kinvara Bay...Fig. 2.67 Conceptual hydrological model of submarine groundwater discharge t...Fig. 2.68 Hydrogeological map of the United Kingdom showing the location of ...Fig. 2.69 Geological map of Britain and Ireland (Geological Museum 1978)....Fig. 2.70 Site of a groundwater source developed in alluvial deposits in the...Fig. 2.71 Cretaceous Chalk outcrop at Hunstanton in north‐west Norfolk. Unus...Fig. 2.72 The Lincolnshire Limestone at Clipsham Quarry, Lincolnshire. In th...Fig. 2.73 An exposed joint surface on a block of Lincolnshire Limestone show...Fig. 2.74 Exposure of Triassic Sherwood Sandstone (Otter Sandstone Formation...Fig. 2.75 Silurian shales at outcrop in the Rheidol Valley, west Wales showi...

3 Chapter 3Fig. 3.1 Variation of porosity with depth in predominantly sand‐rich sedimen...Fig. 3.2 A plot of the porosity‐depth data presented in Table 3.1.Fig. 3.3 Fluid pressure in a pore network will follow a hydrostatic trend wh...Fig. 3.4 (a) Groundwater circulation pattern in an actively subsiding sedime...Fig. 3.5 Outline of the shape and size of the Gulf of Mexico sedimentary bas...Fig. 3.6 Pore pressure variation with depth as observed in six wells in the ...Fig. 3.7 (a) The current distribution of overpressure in the Gulf of Mexico ...Fig. 3.8 In this diagram, by assuming a Rayleigh number (Ra) for the onset o...Fig. 3.9 Locations of (a) the Great Basin; and (b) Borax Lake (Fairley and H...Fig. 3.10 (a) Location and (b) interpolated (simulated) near‐surface tempera...Fig. 3.11 (a) Set-up and boundary conditions of a numerical model describing...Fig. 3.12 Diagram showing the stages of development of saline groundwater in...Fig. 3.13 In this diagram, salinity distributions in aquifers on the contine...Fig. 3.14 Graph showing depth versus salinity relationships for three sedime...Fig. 3.15 Diagram showing the schematic evolution of the Western Canada Sedi...Fig. 3.16 Location map of the Williston Basin showing the Devonian limestone...Fig. 3.17 Conceptual hydrogeological cross‐section depicting: (a) the presen...Fig. 3.18 (a) Plot of groundwater oxygen‐isotope ratios and salinity (total ...Fig. 3.19 Diagram showing the hydrogeology of ice‐sheet margins. Englacial p...

4 Chapter 4Fig. 4.1 The structure of the water molecule showing the dipole created by t...Fig. 4.2 Water molecules surrounding a positively charged cation and a negat...Fig. 4.3 Location of 14 British spas referenced in Table 4.4 (Mather 2013)....Fig. 4.4 The former Robert Cain Brewery, Stanhope Street, Liverpool, situate...Fig. 4.5 Schematic model showing the evolution of the chemical character of ...Fig. 4.6 Schematic diagram of the evolution of groundwater along a flowpath ...Fig. 4.7 Map of the extent of the Upper Floridan aquifer showing the relatio...Fig. 4.8 Hydrogeological section of part of the Upper Floridan aquifer. The ...Fig. 4.9 Hydrochemical section along line A‐A′ (see Fig. 4.7) showing the va...Fig. 4.10 Flow cell with inserted measurement probes for monitoring the well...Fig. 4.11 Distribution diagrams of (a) Na⁺ and (b) Cl⁻ concentrations ...Fig. 4.12 Schoeller (semi‐logarithmic) diagram illustrating near‐surface gro...Fig. 4.13 Simple graphical representation of major ion analyses of groundwat...Fig. 4.14 Trilinear diagram of major ion analyses of groundwaters from the M...Fig. 4.15 Durov diagram of major ion analyses of groundwaters from the Milli...Fig. 4.16 (a) Identification using a trilinear diagram and (b) mapping of th...Fig. 4.17 Graphical methods for exploring hydrochemical processes. The X–Y p...Fig. 4.18 Site plan showing points of solvent use and soil gas concentration...Fig. 4.19 Activity coefficient, γ, as a function of ionic strength for ...Fig. 4.20 Percentage distribution of inorganic carbon species in water as a ...Fig. 4.21 Dissolved species in water in equilibrium with calcite as a functi...Fig. 4.22 Map of the geology and groundwater level contours for the Jurassic...Fig. 4.23 Hydrochemical sections showing major and minor anion (a) and catio...Fig. 4.24 Cross‐plots of calcite saturation index versus dolomite saturation...Fig. 4.25 Schematic representation of the development of open‐ and closed‐sy...Fig. 4.26 Chemical evolution paths for water dissolving calcite at 15 °C for...Fig. 4.27 Graphical representation of the modelled open‐ and closed‐system c...Fig. 4.28 Pictorial representation of (a) adsorption and (b) cation exchange...Fig. 4.29 Hydrogeochemical trends in the Lincolnshire Limestone for Ca²⁺, MgFig. 4.30 The central area of a Piper diagram showing the distribution of hy...Fig. 4.31 Spatial distribution of hydrochemical water types defined in Fig. ...Fig. 4.32 Stability diagram showing fields of solid and dissolved forms of F...Fig. 4.33 Variation in the concentration of the major dissolved species affe...Fig. 4.34 Downgradient hydrogeological and hydrochemical cross‐section of th...Fig. 4.35 Stability diagram showing fields of dissolved and gaseous forms of...Fig. 4.36 Depth profiles of groundwater pH, , and Fe for multilevel obser...Fig. 4.37 Depth profile of pyrite and organic matter content in the unconsol...Fig. 4.38 The Goldich weathering sequence based on observations of the seque...Fig. 4.39 Stability relations for gibbsite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, musc...Fig. 4.40 Map showing the location and solid geology of the Carnmenellis Gra...Fig. 4.41 Conceptual cross‐section through the Carnmenellis Granite showing ...

5 Chapter 5Fig. 5.1 The δ²H versus δ¹⁸O relationship for Western and Central...Fig. 5.2 Contour maps of δ¹⁸O and δ²H in recent (i.e. within the ...Fig. 5.3 Record of monthly precipitation amount and composite δ¹⁸O valu...Fig. 5.4 Schematic cross‐section showing a conceptual model of the extent an...Fig. 5.5 (a) Hydrogeological cross‐section of bedrock aquifers of Estonia sh...Fig. 5.6 Cross‐plot of δ²H versus δ¹⁸O for groundwaters in souther...Fig. 5.7 Diagram illustrating the possible isotopic shifts from the WMWL on ...Fig. 5.8 Summary of the ranges of δ¹⁵N values of nitrate for commonly o...Fig. 5.9 (a) The variation in δ¹⁵N composition of groundwater nitrate f...Fig. 5.10 Sulphur isotope values (δ³⁴S) for various sources of sulphur ...Fig. 5.11 (a) Variation in δ³⁴S composition of dissolved sulphate from ...Fig. 5.12 (a) Numbered sampling sites and the distribution of basic hydroche...Fig. 5.13 Variations in mean monthly tritium concentrations in precipitation...Fig. 5.14 Sequential profiles of (a) tritium and (b) in the unsaturated zo...Fig. 5.15 Hydrogeological section of the Linsental aquifer, north‐east Switz...Fig. 5.16 Noble gas palaeotemperature records for (a) the East Midlands Tria...Fig. 5.17 Conceptual hydrochemical model of the Bornheim fault indicating su...

6 Chapter 6Fig. 6.1 Diagram illustrating the inputs, flowpaths and outputs within a riv...Fig. 6.2 The copper 5‐inch standard rain gauge used by the UK Meteorological...Fig. 6.3 Calculation of area‐weighted average rainfall amount using the meth...Fig. 6.4 Mean annual rainfall over the United Kingdom, 1961–1990, compiled b...Fig. 6.5 Sketch of the occurrence of water within unsaturated material showi...Fig. 6.6 Methods for the measurement of the physical properties of soils: (a...Fig. 6.7 Field soil moisture monitoring station with an installed capacitanc...Fig. 6.8 Single‐value characteristic curves showing the relationship of (a) ...Fig. 6.9 Soil characteristic curves showing the variation of volumetric mois...Fig. 6.10 Hypothetical depth profiles of (a) volumetric moisture content, θ...Fig. 6.11 Schematic diagram of the Horton curve showing a decrease in infilt...Fig. 6.12 Map showing expansion of saturated areas during a single rainstorm...Fig. 6.13 Schematic diagram showing the distribution of infiltrating soil mo...Fig. 6.14 Borehole hydrograph record representing the change in aquifer stor...Fig. 6.15 Drying curve for a vegetated soil of short‐rooted grass with a roo...Fig. 6.16 Chemical and isotopic profiles of water in the unsaturated zone of...Fig. 6.17 In (a) isotherms in an idealized cross‐section through the subsurf...Fig. 6.18 Plot of temperature‐depth data presented in Table 6.7 for Well #1 ...Fig. 6.19 The parameters needed to apply the analytical solution technique t...Fig. 6.20 Normalized temperatures from Well #1 and Well #2 plotted against n...Fig. 6.21 (a) Measured 1978 temperature–depth (TD) profiles for three sites ...Fig. 6.22 Design of two types of current meter for measuring stream discharg...Fig. 6.23 Standard sectional method for calculating stream discharge using r...Fig. 6.24 Details of a StreamPro ADCP assembly on a catamaran with tow rope ...Fig. 6.25 A rating curve to convert measurements of depth of flow (stage or ...Fig. 6.26 Surface water slope variation during the passage of a flood wave. ...Fig. 6.27 The steady‐state or constant rate injection dilution gauging metho...Fig. 6.28 The slug injection dilution gauging method of stream discharge mea...Fig. 6.29 Examples of: (a) thin plate weir (rectangular notch weir) and (b) ...Fig. 6.30 Marham gauging station on the River Nar, Norfolk, England (NGR TF ...Fig. 6.31 Components of total catchment runoff contributing to streamflow. I...Fig. 6.32 Flow duration curves for permeable and impermeable catchments. Not...Fig. 6.33 Hydrograph of daily gauged flows during 2001 for Costessey Mill on...Fig. 6.34 Derivation of a master depletion curve by hydrograph analysis. Fir...Fig. 6.35 Derivation of a unit hydrograph for an effective rainfall duration...Fig. 6.36 Construction of a unit hydrograph for a longer rainfall duration (...Fig. 6.37 Three hydrogeological situations that represent flow between an aq...Fig. 6.38 Cross‐sections to illustrate the impacts of groundwater abstractio...Fig. 6.39 The history of Chalk groundwater abstractions in the River Ver cat...Fig. 6.40 (a) Qualitative sketch showing the difference in vertical temperat...Fig. 6.41 Cross‐section, drawn perpendicular to the river, showing the ideal...Fig. 6.42 Type curves to determine the rate and volume of stream depletion b...Fig. 6.43 Schematic diagram showing the type of lumped calculations performe...Fig. 6.44 Catchment resource model results illustrating the predicted effect...

7 Chapter 7Fig. 7.1 Design of a water level dipper showing (a) the general assembly and...Fig. 7.2 Water level dipper in use at a groundwater observation borehole.Fig. 7.3 General designs of (a) well, (b) observation borehole and (c) piezo...Fig. 7.4 Borehole hydrograph records (1974–1977) for the Chalk aquifer in so...Fig. 7.5 Diagram showing the change in aquifer stress conditions caused by a...Fig. 7.6 Relationship between groundwater level fluctuation and atmospheric ...Fig. 7.7 Groundwater hydrograph for Bexar County Index Well J‐17 in the conf...Fig. 7.8 Barometric efficiency, B, in the BAS determined from the inverse re...Fig. 7.9 Graphical construction method for determining the direction of grou...Fig. 7.10 Hvorslev piezometer test showing (a) the piezometer geometry and (...Fig. 7.11 Monitoring groundwater drawdown in an observation borehole using a...Fig. 7.12 (a) Suggested cruciform borehole array and (b) diagrammatic repres...Fig. 7.13 Nomenclature and set‐up of radial flow to (a) a well penetrating a...Fig. 7.14 The non‐equilibrium type curve (Theis curve) for a fully confined ...Fig. 7.15 Diagram showing the Cooper–Jacob semi‐logarithmic plot of drawdown...Fig. 7.16 Geological log and impeller flow log for the Woolhampton river reg...Fig. 7.17 Diagram showing the match point found from the overlay of a type c...Fig. 7.18 Diagram showing the semi‐logarithmic plot of residual drawdown, s′...Fig. 7.19 Cross‐section through a confined aquifer showing the cones of depr...Fig. 7.20 Comparison of log drawdown, s, versus log time, t, for (a) ideal (...Fig. 7.21 Application of image well theory in the case of pumping wells affe...Fig. 7.22 Five topological types of conduit network in karst groundwater sys...Fig. 7.23 (a) Location map of the Chepstow Block and Great Spring, (b) recov...Fig. 7.24 Results of a single borehole dilution tracer test in an open Chalk...Fig. 7.25 Recovery of fluorescein dye‐tracer at Quay Lane well, Southwold, S...Fig. 7.26 Fluorescein concentration data from the radial flow test at Quay L...Fig. 7.27 (a) Groundwater abstractions as a percentage of recharge based on ...Fig. 7.28 (a) Model domain and boundary conditions for the groundwater flow ...

8 Chapter 8Fig. 8.1 Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals for death from acute...Fig. 8.2 Histogram of total hardness values recorded for groundwaters sample...Fig. 8.3 Diagram for classifying irrigation water based on percentage sodium...Fig. 8.4 Diagrammatic representation of (a) molecular diffusion and (b) mech...Fig. 8.5 Dispersion within an isotropic porous material of (a) a continuous ...Fig. 8.6 Positions of a contaminant front transported by one‐dimensional mol...Fig. 8.7 Results of a tracer experiment in the Cape Cod sand and gravel aqui...Fig. 8.8 Results of a controlled laboratory column experiment showing the ef...Fig. 8.9 Set‐up of the layered aquifer system and transport parameters used ...Fig. 8.10 Concentration breakthrough curve demonstrating macrodispersion cau...Fig. 8.11 Column breakthrough curves for 2‐nitroaniline (C_o = 6 μg L⁻¹Fig. 8.12 Configuration of the injected pulse and the time‐series sampling p...Fig. 8.13 Movement and dispersive spreading of the carbon tetrachloride (CTE...Fig. 8.14 Comparison of retardation factors estimated from synoptic sampling...Fig. 8.15 Plan view of the conservative sulphate and organic solute plumes o...Fig. 8.16 Examples of Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms. S is the mass of ch...Fig. 8.17 Groundwater contamination by metal plating wastes, Long Island, Ne...Fig. 8.18 Comparison of fluid wetting states for a porous sand containing wa...Fig. 8.19 Relative permeability curves for a two‐phase system of wetting, w,...Fig. 8.20 Behaviour of organic contaminants in groundwater. The chlorinated ...Fig. 8.21 Zones of DNAPL and water, and the relationship of mobile DNAPL and...Fig. 8.22 Diagram of (a) DNAPL and (b) LNAPL spills and their transport in f...Fig. 8.23 Effect of density on the transport of dissolved contaminants in a ...Fig. 8.24 The effect of aquifer heterogeneity on contaminant zones influence...Fig. 8.25 Contaminant transport within porous fractured material. In (a) the...Fig. 8.26 Ranges of major ion concentrations for pumped samples from abstrac...Fig. 8.27 Schematic diagram of contaminant sources, transport pathways and p...Fig. 8.28 Graphs showing long‐term changes in the quality of polluted mine w...Fig. 8.29 Map showing the location of major uncontrolled discharges from aba...Fig. 8.30 Limestone filter installation sited upstream of Cwm Rheidol, west ...Fig. 8.31 Organic solvent contamination of the urban Birmingham Triassic san...Fig. 8.32 Temporal variation of concentration profiles of (a) chloride, (b) ...Fig. 8.33 Temporal variation in TOC : Cl ratios in the unsaturated zone of t...Fig. 8.34 Landfill leachate contamination of groundwater in a lacustrine san...Fig. 8.35 Diagram showing (a) a schematic cross‐section of a conventional se...Fig. 8.36 Distribution of nitrate concentration in an unconfined medium sand...Fig. 8.37 Microplastic particles identified in (1) raw groundwater at the dr...Fig. 8.38 The nitrogen cycle showing sources of nitrogen incorporated in the...Fig. 8.39 Regional distribution of groundwater nitrate concentrations in the...Fig. 8.40 Histogram of groundwater nitrate concentrations in the Jersey bedr...Fig. 8.41 Development of a saline interface in an unconfined coastal aquifer...Fig. 8.42 Vertical cross‐section showing flow patterns of freshwater and sal...Fig. 8.43 Location map of the lower valley and delta of the River Llobregat,...Fig. 8.44 Schematic hydrogeological cross‐section of the Lower Llobregat aqu...Fig. 8.45 Temporal variation in piezometric level and chloride content at th...Fig. 8.46 Evolution of saline intrusion in the Lower Llobregat deep delta aq...Fig. 8.47 Fluid electrical conductivity logs recorded by downhole geophysica...Fig. 8.48 Freshwater lens developed in a small oceanic island under natural ...Fig. 8.49 Schematic hydrogeological cross‐section of the perched and Mean Se...

9 Chapter 9Fig. 9.1 Single‐well capture zone curves overlain on a site map of a sand qu...Fig. 9.2 Site of a jet fuel leak adjacent to Technical Block L at Heathrow A...Fig. 9.3 Construction details of recovery Well 2. The well was installed by ...Fig. 9.4 Cumulative recovery of hydrocarbon from Wells 1, 2 and 3 at Heathro...Fig. 9.5 Three options for remediation of contaminated groundwater. (a) Unre...Fig. 9.6 In (a) a cross‐section of the emplaced source of chlorinated solven...Fig. 9.7 Longitudinal section through the Borden aquifer test site showing t...Fig. 9.8 Conceptual diagram illustrating the important natural attenuation p...Fig. 9.10 Illustration of two situations of contrasting groundwater vulnerab...Fig. 9.11 Groundwater vulnerability classification scheme used by the Enviro...Fig. 9.12 Specific groundwater nitrate vulnerability map for England and Wal...Fig. 9.9 Illustration of natural attenuation of crude oil contamination by a...Fig. 9.13 Examples of protection zones for groundwater sources in (a) a poro...Fig. 9.14 Conceptual model of a wellhead protection area and associated term...Fig. 9.15 Wellhead protection area (WHPA) defined using a fully three‐dimens...Fig. 9.16 Schematic illustration of source protection zones showing the rela...Fig. 9.17 Framework for a tiered approach to hydrogeological risk assessment...Fig. 9.18 The European approach to groundwater vulnerability assessment in c...Fig. 9.19 The Drastrup Area, Denmark, showing the area of new forest planted...Fig. 9.20 Illustration of the reduced nitrate concentrations achieved in (a)...Fig. 9.21 Areas of NVZs in England. The following rules apply under this man...Fig. 9.22 Distribution of arsenic pollution in the main aquifer system in Ba...Fig. 9.23 Groundwater vulnerability map for the lower Walawe River Basin, Sr...

10 Chapter 10Fig. 10.1 Major aquifer basins of Libya and location of wellfields and conve...Fig. 10.2 Map of the location of the original development area of the Great ...Fig. 10.3 Hydrograph records for 1970–1971 showing the net gain in flow of t...Fig. 10.4 Transfer of water from the Ely Ouse River to the Cut‐Off Channel a...Fig. 10.5 Schematic illustration of types of managed aquifer recharge. (a) A...Fig. 10.6 Schematic diagram showing the operation of an aquifer storage and ...Fig. 10.7 Map of the North London Artificial Recharge Scheme showing borehol...Fig. 10.8 Location map of the River Rhine at the Flehe waterworks, Düsseldor...Fig. 10.9 Vertical section through the Pleistocene sandy gravel aquifer belo...Fig. 10.10 Graph showing the fluctuation in chloride concentrations in the R...Fig. 10.11 Schematic representation of types of flow conditions at riverbank...Fig. 10.12 Schematic diagram depicting the evolution of dissolved oxygen, ni...Fig. 10.13 Simple hydrogeological classification of wetland types. In (a) su...Fig. 10.14 Location and site map of Redgrave and Lopham fen in East Anglia s...Fig. 10.15 General aspect of Redgrave and Lopham Fen looking north‐east acro...Fig. 10.16 Schematic cross‐section through Redgrave and Lopham Fen illustrat...Fig. 10.17 Generalized hydrogeological cross‐section of south Florida (the l...Fig. 10.18 Hydrological features and the direction of surface water and coas...Fig. 10.19 Generalized section of the Everglades wetlands in the Shark River...Fig. 10.20 Long‐term hydrograph showing water level fluctuations at a well i...Fig. 10.21 Conceptual model of hydrological and hydrogeological controls on ...Fig. 10.22 Examples of coastal dune slacks: (a) Type B dune slack and (b) Ty...Fig. 10.23 Hydrogeological cross‐section explaining the emergence of perenni...Fig. 10.24 Schematic representation of the global radiation budget. Averaged...Fig. 10.25 Impacts of increasing greenhouse gas concentrations on the natura...Fig. 10.26 Comparison of (a) the Central England annual precipitation record...Fig. 10.27 (a) Profile view of a permafrost landscape with shallow (supra‐pe...Fig. 10.28 (a) Conceptual river discharge hydrographs dominated by spring/su...Fig. 10.29 Schematic NE–SW profile illustrating geothermal resources in the ...Fig. 10.30 Schematic diagrams of (a) a closed‐loop borehole heat exchanger i...Fig. 10.31 Schematic illustration (not to scale) of possible modes of water ...Fig. 10.32 Integrated, adaptive management scheme for the protection of grou...

11 Appendix 10Fig. A10.1 Cross‐section through a layered aquifer‐aquitard system comprisin...Fig. A10.2 Site investigation area of a sand aquifer.Fig. A10.3 Longitudinal and transverse sections of an alluvial valley. (a) L...Fig. A10.4 Section through a sandstone aquifer with shale confining beds.Fig. A10.5 Flow net of seepage under a dam.Fig. A10.6 Location and topographic map of Kuwait (Saleh et al. 1999).Fig. A10.7 Location map of the Fife and Kinross area of Scotland showing sam...Fig. A10.8 Tri‐linear (Piper) diagram.Fig. A10.9 Schematic cross‐section of the Builth Volcanics, Llandrindod Well...Fig. A10.10 Geological logs of two chalk boreholes at Hargham, Norfolk, Engl...Fig. A10.11 Site plan and generalized cross‐section for a layered limestone ...Fig. A10.12 Cross‐section of a former sand and gravel quarry now operated as...Fig. A10.13 Cross‐section through a proposed deep disposal, radioactive wast...Fig. A10.14 Plan view and generalized cross‐section showing the location of ...Fig. A10.15 Type curves showing the capture zones of a single pumping well l...Fig. AS.10.1 Sketch of relative water levels in a piezometer nest installed ...Fig. AS.10.2 Set‐up used to calculate the hydraulic head, pressure head and ...Fig. AS.10.3 Completed map and section of hydrogeological conditions in a sa...Fig. AS.10.4 Section showing hydraulic head and groundwater flow conditions ...Fig. AS.10.5 (a) Set‐up of radial flow towards a pumping well and (b) plot o...Fig. AS.10.6 Completed trilinear (Piper) diagram of hydrochemical analyses o...Fig. AS.10.7 Plots of (a) δ²H versus δ¹⁸O, (b) δ¹⁸O versus ClFig. AS.10.8 Conceptual hydrochemical model of the origin and modification o...Fig. AS.10.9 Division of channel cross‐section into verticals for the purpos...Fig. AS.10.10 Plots of (a) volumetric moisture content and (b) soil water po...Fig. AS.10.11 Set‐up of a pumping test in a confined aquifer with the drawdo...Fig. AS.10.12 Plot showing the overlay of drawdown versus time data (the fie...Fig. AS.10.13 Plot of drawdown versus time using given in Table A10.13 for t...Fig. AS.10.14 Plot of the relative concentration breakthrough curve for TCE ...Fig. AS.10.15 Capture‐zone type curve for a bottling plant supplied by water...