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Each key use is broad in nature and encompasses various language functions descriptive of how we use language. Language functions help us organize how we speak or write around a message; in that way, language functions help us organize discourse and encompass specific sentence features that are part of the way we define academic language use (Gottlieb & Ernst-Slavit, 2014). Academic language functions refer to the purpose of language use or, put more simply, why we use language to communicate—how we might wish to identify, clarify, or paraphrase (among others) concepts and ideas.

Language functions often trigger specific discourses and types of sentences. For example, we use language to describe characters in a story, to compare two approaches to solving problems, or to ask questions about an event. Describe, compare, and ask questions are examples of language functions; each one indicates specific ways in which we communicate. When we describe, we may use language that includes adjectives and adverbs—language intended to create a mood or appeal to the senses. On the other hand, when we compare, we may use comparative and superlative forms (e.g., -er, -est, more than, or less than), noting similarities and differences. It is important to remember that the language function by itself does not shape language use. The context, intended audience, and other factors, including our own experiences and identities, also impact the specific ways in which we communicate with one another.

We can think of language functions as pieces of a puzzle that, together, show a more complete picture or landscape. Several language functions can be used together or build upon each other for a greater purpose, like DARE—discuss, argue, recount, or explain. During a discussion, for example, students may ask and answer questions, summarize others’ ideas, or elaborate on particular topics. Similarly, we rarely recount only by describing, but we may also compare and contrast, elaborate on details, and even ask questions as part of a dialogue, to name a few. As we illustrated in the opening text on nutritional guidelines, DARE often represents multiple perspectives within a single passage.

There are many language functions, and each may be used for one or more key purposes. For example, summarize could be used to recount but could also be used to argue. Another example is describe, which could be used when trying to explain a process, recount a story, argue for the use of a particular technology, or discuss a particular topic in a small group. In attempting to decide on a language focus for instruction, the large number and variability of language functions can be overwhelming. Key uses of academic language, in representing the broadest of functions that are widely represented in learning at school, provide a more accessible approach to planning for infusion of language into instruction. Figure 1.2 is a table with some language functions that are associated with each key use of academic language in DARE.

As with other examples in this book, those in Figure 1.2 are only representative, not all inclusive. It is meant to further our understanding of each key use rather than to prescribe how to enact each one.

Figure 1.2 Example Language Functions Encompassed in DARE

Take the DARE

Select a unit of study or content topic that you will teach in the next few weeks. What are the expectations for language use in (a) readings, (b) activities, (c) assignments, and (d) assessment? Can you identify some of the key uses in DARE? Can you identify other language functions?

In understanding how to use DARE, we must use shift our assessment and instructional practices to encompass a language lens. While we continue to focus on academic content expectations for our instruction, DARE expands our view to include the language that accompanies content. So for example, as we ask students to explain, we are looking for the logic of their explanation and also for the language used to express that logic. To support this point, we offer Figure 1.3, which contains examples of language features associated with each key use of academic language and sample tasks.

It is important to note that key uses of academic language do not neatly occur independently from each other, as when we communicate, we seamlessly move across the various uses. While the tasks presented before typically include the key use to which they are connected in the figure, they may also include other key uses. For example, as one explains the cause of a natural phenomenon, such as an earthquake, one may need to inform the audience about the plates that form part of the crust of the earth, using the key use recount. One may also provide information (recount) about particular scientific theories and, in doing so, include claims and supportive evidence (argue) to be able to discuss causes for earthquakes from a particular scientific paradigm. In other words, key uses of academic language are often intertwined in text and talk.

Figure 1.3 Typical Language Features and Example Tasks Related to Key Uses

Take the DARE

Keep a DARE journal, such as in Resource 1.1. Record in your journal the activities you design for your students, and identify the key use(s) for you and your students. At the end of the week, review your notes, and share the following with your students:

1 What are the key uses of academic language that appear most often?

2 What are the key uses you would like to focus on more?

3 What evidence have you collected that provides you information on how students use language?

4 How might you plan with your colleagues for gathering information on language?

Making language a priority in teaching and learning requires developing the ability to shift back and forth between attending to content and attending to language use. The following tools are intended to help you become more aware of language use in your classrooms.