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There are several American genera of Turdinæ not found north of Mexico as yet, although it is not impossible that one of these (Catharus) may hereafter be detected within the limits of the United States. The species of Catharus resemble the North American wood-thrushes (Hylocichla); but the spurious or first primary quill is longer (from one half to one third the second quill), the wings are rounded, not pointed, the tarsus is longer than the head, and the outstretched toes extend beyond the tail. The species to be looked for are C. melpomene and occidentalis.22

The North American species of Turdinæ, while retained under the single genus Turdus, yet constitute several distinct groups, which we may call subgenera.

Genus TURDUS, Linnæus

Turdus, Linnæus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1758, 168. (Type, Turdus viscivorus of Europe.)—Baird, Rev. Am. Birds.

Gen. Char. Bill conical, subulate, shorter than the head; the tip gently decurved and notched (except in Hesperocichla); the rictus with moderate bristles; the wings rather long and pointed, with small first primary (less than one fourth the second); wings considerably longer than the tail, which is firm, nearly even, with broad feathers. Tarsi variable, seldom as long as the skull, the scutellæ fused into a continuous plate, only in rare individual instances showing indications of the lines of separation.

The genus Turdus is very cosmopolitan, occurring nearly throughout the globe, excepting in Australia, and embraces species of highest perfection as singers. In the large number of species known there are many variations in external form, but the transition from one to the other is so gradual as to render it very difficult to separate them into different genera. The sections of the group we adopt are the following:—

Sexes similar

Hylocichla. Smallest species. Bill short, broad at base; much depressed. Tarsi long and slender, longer than middle toe and claw, by the additional length of the claw; outstretched legs reaching nearly to tip of tail. Body slender. Color: above olivaceous or reddish, beneath whitish; breast spotted; throat without spots.

Turdus. Bill stouter and higher. Tarsi stout and short, scarcely longer than middle toe and claw. Body stout, generally whitish beneath and spotted. (Second quill longer than fifth?)

Planesticus. Similar to preceding. (Second quill shorter than fifth?) Beneath mostly uni-colored; unstreaked except the throat, which is whitish with dark streaks.

Sexes dissimilar

Merula. Similar to Turdus. Male usually more or less black, especially on the head; females brownish, often with streaked throats. Bill distinctly notched.

Hesperocichla. Similar to Turdus. Male reddish beneath, with a black collar. Bill without notch.

Subgenus HYLOCICHLA, Baird

Hylocichla, Baird (s. g.), Rev. Am. Birds, 1864, 12. (Type, Turdus mustelinus.)

Turdus mustelinus.

1570

The essential characters of Hylocichla have already been given. The subgenus includes the small North American species, with Turdus mustelinus, Gm., at the head as type, which are closely connected on the one side with Catharus, by their lengthened tarsi, and with Turdus by the shape of the wing. The bills are shorter, more depressed, and broader at base than in typical Turdus, so much so that the species have frequently been described under Muscicapa.

It is not at all improbable that naturalists may ultimately conclude to consider the group as of generic rank.

In this group there appears to be five well-marked forms or “species.” They are, mustelinus, Gm., pallasi, Caban., fuscescens, Steph., swainsoni, Caban., and aliciæ, Baird. The first-named is totally unlike the rest, which are more closely related in appearance.

In studying carefully a very large series of specimens of all the species, the following facts become evident:—

1. In autumn and winter the “olive” color of the plumage assumes a browner cast than at other seasons; this variation, however, is the same in all the species (and varieties), so that in autumn and winter the several species differ from each other as much as they do in spring and summer.

Turdus ustulatus.

Of these five species, two only (pallasi and swainsoni) inhabit the whole breadth of the continent; and they, in the three Faunal Provinces over which they extend, are modified into “races” or “varieties” characteristic of each region. The first of these species, as the pallasi var. pallasi, extends westward to the Rocky Mountains, and migrates in winter into the South; specimens are very much browner in the winter than in spring; but in the Rocky Mountain region is a larger, grayer race, the var. auduboni. This, in its migrations, extends along the central mountain region through Mexico to Guatemala; specimens from the northern and southern extremes of this range are identical in all the specific characters; but the southern specimens, being in the fall and winter dress, are browner in color than northern ones (spring birds); an autumnal example from Cantonment Burgwyn, N. M., is as brown as any Central American specimen. Along the Pacific Province, from Kodiak to Western Mexico, and occasionally straggling eastward toward the Rocky Mountain system, there is the var. nanus, a race smaller than the var. pallasi, and with much the same colors as var. auduboni, though the rufous of the tail is deeper than in either of the other forms. In this race, as in the others, there is no difference in size between specimens from north and south extremes of its distribution, because the breeding-place is in the North, all Southern specimens being winter sojourners from their Northern birthplace.

The T. swainsoni is found in abundance westward to the western limit of the Rocky Mountain system; in the latter region specimens at all seasons have the olive of a clearer, more greenish shade than in any Eastern examples; this clearer tint is analogous with that of the Rocky Mountain form of pallasi (auduboni). In precisely the same region inhabited by the pallasi var. nanus the swainsoni also has a representative form,—the var. ustulatus. This resembles in pattern the var. swainsoni, but the olive above is decidedly more rufescent,—much as in Rocky Mountain specimens of T. fuscescens; the spots on jugulum and breast are also narrower, as well as hardly darker in color than the back; and the tail is longer than in Rocky Mountain swainsoni, in which latter it is longer than in Eastern examples. The remaining species—mustelinus, fuscescens, and aliciæ—extend no farther west than the Rocky Mountains; the first and last only toward their eastern base, while the second breeds abundantly as far as the eastern limit of the Great Basin.

The T. fuscescens, from the Rocky Mountains, is considerably darker in color above, while the specks on the throat and jugular are sparser or more obsolete than in Eastern birds.

In T. mustelinus, the only two Western specimens in the collection (Mount Carroll, Ills., and Fort Pierre) have the rump of a clearer grayish than specimens from the Atlantic Coast; in all other respects, however, they appear to be identical. Some Mexican specimens, being in winter plumage, have the breast more buffy than Northern (spring or summer) examples, and the rufous of the head, etc. is somewhat brighter.

In aliciæ, no difference is observed between Eastern and Western birds; the reason is, probably, that the breeding-ground of all is in one province, though their migrations may extend over two. There is, however, a marked difference between the spring and autumn plumage; the clear grayish of the former being replaced, in the latter, by a snuffy brown, or sepia tint,—this especially noticeable on wings and tail.

PLATE I.

1. Turdus mustelinus, Gm. Pa., 1570.

2. Turdus ustulatus, Nutt. Oregon, 2040.

3. Turdus aliciæ, Baird. Illinois, 10084.

4. Turdus swainsoni, Cab. Penn., 981.

5. Turdus fuscescens, Steph., D. C., 28231.

6. Turdus pallasii, Cab. Penn., 2146.

7. Turdus nanus, Aud. Cala., 17997.

8. Turdus auduboni, Baird. Rocky Mts., 10886.

The following synopsis is intended to show the characters of the different species and varieties.

1. Spots beneath rounded, covering breast and sides

A. Rufous brown above, becoming much brighter toward the bill, and more olivaceous on the tail. Beneath white; whole breast with rounded spots. Nest on tree; eggs pale blue.

1. T. mustelinus. Beneath nearly pure white, with rounded blackish spots over the whole breast, sides, and upper part of abdomen; wing, 4.25; tail, 3.05; culmen, .80; tarsus, 1.26. Hab. Eastern Province United States, south to Guatemala and Honduras. Cuba and Bermuda of West Indies.

2. Spots beneath triangular, on breast only

B. Entirely uniform in color above,—olivaceous, varying to reddish or greenish with the species. Beneath whitish, with a wash of brownish across the breast and along sides. Spots triangular, and confined to the breast. Nest on trees or bushes; eggs blue spotted with brownish; except in T. fuscescens, which nests on the ground, and lays plain blue eggs.

a. No conspicuous light orbital ring.

2. T. fuscescens. Yellowish-rufous or olive-fulvous above; a strong wash of pale fulvous across the throat and jugulum, where are very indistinct cuneate spots of same shade as the back. Wing, 4.10; tail, 3.00; culmen, .70; tarsus, 1.15. Hab. Eastern Province of North America. North to Nova Scotia and Fort Garry. West to Great Salt Lake. South (in winter) to Panama and Brazil. Cuba.

3. T. aliciæ. Grayish clove-brown above; breast almost white, with broad, blackish spots; whole side of head uniform grayish. Wing, 4.20; tail, 3.20; culmen, .77; tarsus, 1.15. Hab. Eastern Province North America from shore of Arctic Ocean, Fort Yukon, and Kodiak to Costa Rica. West to Missouri River. Cuba.

b. A conspicuous orbital ring of buff.

4. T. swainsoni.

Greenish-olive above, breast and sides of head strongly tinged with buff. Spots on breast broad, distinct, nearly black. Length, 7.00; wing, 3.90; tail, 2.90; culmen, .65; tarsus, 1.10. Hab. Eastern and Middle Provinces of North America. North to Slave Lake, south to Ecuador, west to East Humboldt Mountains … var. swainsoni.

Brownish-olive above, somewhat more rufescent on wing; breast and head strongly washed with dilute rufous. Spots on breast narrow, scarcely darker than back. Wing, 3.85; tail, 3.00; culmen, .70; tarsus, 1.10. Hab. Pacific Province of United States. Guatemala … var. ustulatus.

C. Above olivaceous, becoming abruptly more reddish on upper tail-coverts and tail. Spots as in swainsoni, but larger and less transverse,—more sharply defined. An orbital ring of pale buff. Nest on ground; eggs blue, probably unspotted.

5. T. pallasi.

Olivaceous of upper parts like ustulatus. Reddish of upper tail-coverts invading lower part of rump; no marked difference in tint between the tail and its upper coverts. Flanks and tibiæ yellowish olive-brown; a faint tinge of buff across the breast. Eggs plain. Wing, 3.80; tail, 3.00; culmen, .70; tarsus, 1.20. Hab. Eastern Province of United States (only?) … var. pallasi.

Olivaceous of upper parts like swainsoni. Reddish of tail not invading the rump, and the tail decidedly more castaneous than the upper coverts. Beneath almost pure white; scarcely any buff tinge on breast; flanks and tibiæ grayish or plumbeous olive. Size smaller than swainsoni; bill depressed. Wing, 3.50; tail, 2.60; culmen, .60; tarsus, 1.15. Hab. Western Province of North America, from Kodiak to Cape St. Lucas. East to East Humboldt Mountains … var. nanus.

Olivaceous above, like preceding; the upper tail-coverts scarcely different from the back. Tail yellowish-rufous. Beneath like nanus. Size larger than swainsoni. Wing, 4.20; tail, 3.35; culmen, .80; tarsus, 1.30. Hab. Rocky Mountains. From Fort Bridger, south (in winter) to Southern Mexico … var. auduboni.

Turdus mustelinus, Gmelin

THE WOOD THRUSH

Turdus mustelinus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. I, 1788, 817.—Audubon, Orn. Biog. I, 1832, 372, pl. 73.—Ib. Birds Am. III, 1841, 24, pl. 144.—D’Orb. La Sagra’s Cuba Ois. 1840, 49.—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 212.—Ib. Rev. Am. Birds, 1864, 13.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1856, 294, and 1859, 325.—Jones, Nat. in Bermuda, 26.—Gundlach, Repertorio, 1865, 228.—Maynard.—Samuels, 146. Turdus melodus, Wils. Am. Orn. I, 1808, 35, pl. ii. Turdus densus, Bonap. Comptes Rendus, XXVIII, 1853, 2.—Ib. Notes Delattre, 1854, 26 (Tabasco).

Additional figures: Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept. II, pl. lxii.—Wilson, Am. Orn. I, pl. ii.

Sp. Char. Above clear cinnamon-brown, on the top of the head becoming more rufous, on the rump and tail olivaceous. The under parts are clear white, sometimes tinged with buff on the breast or anteriorly, and thickly marked beneath, except on the chin and throat and about the vent and tail-coverts, with sub-triangular, sharply defined spots of blackish. The sides of the head are dark brown, streaked with white, and there is also a maxillary series of streaks on each side of the throat, the central portion of which sometimes has indications of small spots. Length, 8.10 inches; wing, 4.25; tail, 3.05; tarsus, 1.26. Young bird similar to adult, but with rusty yellow triangular spots in the ends of the wing coverts.

Hab. U. S. east of Missouri plains, south to Guatemala. Bermuda (not rare). Cuba, La Sagra; Gundlach. Honduras, Moore. Cordova, Scl. Orizaba (winter), Sumichr.

Habits. The Wood Thrush, without being anywhere a very abundant species, is common throughout nearly every portion of the United States between the Mississippi River and the Atlantic. It breeds in every portion of the same extended area, at least as far as Georgia on the south and Massachusetts on the north. Beyond the last-named State, it rarely, if ever, breeds on the coast. In the interior it has a higher range, nesting around Hamilton, C. W. So far as I am aware it is unknown, or very rare, in the States of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.

It makes its appearance early in April in the Middle States, but in New England not until four or five weeks later, appearing about the 10th of May. Their migrations in fall are more irregular, being apparently determined by the abundance of their food. At times they depart as early as the first of September, but sometimes not until the last of October. It winters in Central America, where it is quite abundant at that season.

The favorite localities of the Wood Thrush are the borders of dense thickets, or low damp hollows shaded by large trees. Yet its habits are by no means so retiring, or its nature so timid, as these places of resort would lead us to infer. A small grove in Roxbury, now a part of Boston, in close proximity to a dwelling-house, was for many years the favorite resort of these birds, where several pairs nested and reared their young, rarely even leaving their nests, which were mostly in low bushes, wholly unmindful of the curious children who were their frequent visitors. The same fearless familiarity was observed at Mount Auburn, then first used as a public cemetery. But in the latter instance the nest was always placed high up on a branch of some spreading tree, often in conspicuous places, but out of reach. Mr. J. A. Allen refers to several similar instances where the Wood Thrush did not show itself to be such a recluse as many describe it. In one case a pair built their nest within the limits of a thickly peopled village, where there were but few trees, and a scanty undergrowth. In another a Wood Thrush lived for several successive summers among the elms and maples of Court Square in the city of Springfield, Mass., undisturbed by the passers by or the walkers beneath, or the noise and rattle of the vehicles on the contiguous streets.

The song of this thrush is one of its most remarkable and pleasing characteristics. No lover of sweet sounds can have failed to notice it, and, having once known its source, no one can fail to recognize it when heard again. The melody is one of great sweetness and power, and consists of several parts, the last note of which resembles the tinkling of a small bell, and seems to leave the conclusion suspended. Each part of its song seems sweeter and richer than the preceding.

The nest is usually built on the horizontal branch of a small forest-tree, six or eight feet from the ground, and, less frequently, in the fork of a bush. The diameter is about 5 inches, and the depth 3¾, with a cavity averaging 3 inches across by 2¼ in depth. They are firm, compact structures, chiefly composed of decayed deciduous leaves, closely impacted together, and apparently thus combined when in a moistened condition, and afterward dried into a firmness and strength like that of parchment. These are intermingled with, and strengthened by, a few dry twigs, and the whole is lined with fine roots and a few fine dry grasses. Occasionally, instead of the solid frame of impacted leaves, we find one of solidified mud.

The eggs of the Wood Thrush, usually four in number, sometimes five, are of a uniform deep-blue tint, with but a slight admixture of yellow, which imparts a greenish tinge. Their average measurements are 1.00 by .75 inch.

Turdus fuscescens, Stephens

TAWNY THRUSH; WILSON’S THRUSH

Turdus mustelinus, Wilson, Amer. Ornithology, V, 1812, 98, pl. 43 (not of Gmelin).

Turdus fuscescens, Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zoöl. Birds, X, I, 1817, 182. Cab. Jour. 1855, 470 (Cuba).—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 214.—Ib. Rev. Am. B. 1864, 17.—Gundi. Repertorio, 1865, 228 (Cuba, not rare). Pelzeln, Orn. Bras. II, 1868, 92. (San Vicente, Brazil, December.)—Samuels, 150.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1859, 326.—Ib. Catal. Am. Birds, 1861, 2, No. 10. Turdus silens, Vieill. Encyclop. Méth. II, 1823, 647 (based on T. mustelinus, Wils.). Turdus wilsonii, Bon. Obs. Wils. 1825, No. 73. Turdus minor, D’Orb. La Sagra’s Cuba, Ois. 1840, 47, pl. v (Cuba).

Sp. Char. Above, and on sides of head and neck, nearly uniform light reddish-brown, with a faint tendency to orange on the crown and tail. Beneath, white; the fore part of the breast and throat (paler on the chin) tinged with pale brownish-yellow, in decided contrast to the white of the belly. The sides of the throat and the fore part of the breast, as colored, are marked with small triangular spots of light brownish, nearly like the back, but not well defined. There are a few obsolete blotches on the sides of the breast (in the white) of pale olivaceous; the sides of the body tinged with the same. Tibiæ white. The lower mandible is brownish only at the tip. The lores are ash-colored, the orbital region grayish. Length, 7.50; wing, 4.25; tail, 3.20; tarsus; 1.20.

Hab. Eastern North America, Halifax to Fort Bridger, and north to Fort Garry. Cuba, Panama, and Brazil (winter). Orizaba (winter), Sumichrast.

Habits. This species is one of the common birds of New England, and is probably abundant in certain localities throughout all the country east of the Rocky Mountains, as far to the north as the 50th parallel, and possibly as far as the wooded country extends. Mr. Maynard did not meet with it in Northern New Hampshire. Mr. Wm. G. Winton obtained its nest and eggs at Halifax, N. S.; Mr. Boardman found them also on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and at St. Stephen’s, N. B.; Mr. Couper at Quebec; Mr. Krieghoff at Three Rivers, Canada; Donald Gunn at Selkirk and Red River; and Mr. Kumlien and Dr. Hoy in Wisconsin. Mr. McIlwraith also gives it as common at Hamilton, West Canada. It breeds as far south as Pennsylvania, and as far to the west as Utah, and occurs, in the breeding season, throughout Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Canada.

Mr. Ridgway found this thrush very abundant among the thickets in the valleys of the Provo, Weber, and Bear rivers, in Utah, and very characteristic of those portions of the country.

It arrives in Massachusetts early in May, usually with the first blossoms of the pear, ranging from the 5th to the 20th. It is strictly of woodland habits, found almost entirely among clumps of trees, and obtaining its food from among their branches, or on the ground among the fallen leaves. It moves south from the 10th to the 25th of September, rarely remaining till the first week in October.

It is timid, distrustful, and retiring; delighting in shady ravines, the edges of thick close woods, and occasionally the more retired parts of gardens; where, if unmolested, it will frequent the same locality year after year.

The song of this thrush is quaint, but not unmusical; variable in its character, changing from a prolonged and monotonous whistle to quick and almost shrill notes at the close. Their melody is not unfrequently prolonged until quite late in the evening, and, in consequence, in some portions of Massachusetts these birds are distinguished with the name of Nightingale,—a distinction due rather to the season than to the high quality of their song. Yet Mr. Ridgway regards it, as heard by himself in Utah, as superior in some respects to that of all others of the genus, though far surpassed in mellow richness of voice and depth of metallic tone by that of the Wood Thrush (T. mustelinus). To his ear there was a solemn harmony and a beautiful expression which combined to make the song of this surpass that of all the other American Wood Thrushes. The beauty of their notes appeared in his ears “really inspiring; their song consisting of an inexpressibly delicate metallic utterance of the syllables ta-weel´ ah, ta-weel´ ah, twil´ ah, twil´ ah, accompanied by a fine trill which renders it truly seductive.” The last two notes are said to be uttered in a soft and subdued undertone, producing thereby, in effect, an echo of the others.

The nest is always placed near the ground, generally raised from it by a thick bed of dry leaves or sticks; sometimes among bushes, but never in the fork of a bush or tree, or if so, in very rare and exceptional cases. When incubation has commenced, the female is reluctant to leave her nest. If driven off she utters no complaint, but remains close at hand and returns at the first opportunity.

They construct their nest early in May, and the young are hatched in the latter part of that month, or the first of June. They raise two broods in the season. The nest, even more loosely put together than that of the Ground Swamp Robin (T. pallasi), is often with difficulty kept complete. It is about 3 inches in height, 4½ in diameter, with a cavity 1½ inches deep and 3 in width, and composed of dry bark, dead leaves, stems, and woody fibres, intermingled with grasses, caricas, sedges, etc., and lined with soft skeleton leaves. A nest from Wisconsin was composed entirely of a coarse species of Sparganeum; the dead stalks and leaves of which were interwoven with a very striking effect.

The eggs, usually four, sometimes five in number, are of a uniform green color, with a slight tinge of blue, and average .94 by .66 of an inch in diameter.

Turdus aliciæ, Baird

GRAY-CHEEKED THRUSH; ALICE’S THRUSH

Turdus aliciæ, Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 217, plate 81, f. 2.—Ib. Review Am. Birds, I, 1864, 21.—Coues, Pr. Ac. N. Sc. Aug. 1861, 217 (Labrador).—Ib. Catal. Birds of Washington.—Gundlach, Repertorio, 1865, 229 (Cuba).—Lawr. Ann. N. Y. Lyc. IX, 91 (Costa Rica).—Dall and Bannister, Birds Alaska.—Ridgway, Report.

Sp. Char. Above nearly pure dark olive-green; sides of the head ash-gray; the chin, throat, and under parts white; purest behind. Sides of throat and across the breast with arrow-shaped spots of dark plumbeous-brown. Sides of body and axillaries dull grayish-olivaceous. Tibiæ plumbeous; legs brown. Length, nearly 8 inches; wing, 4.20; tail, 3.20; tarsus, 1.15.

Hab. Eastern North America to shores of Arctic Ocean, and along northern coast from Labrador to Kodiak, breeding in immense numbers between the mouths of Mackenzie and Coppermine. West to Fort Yukon and Missouri River States. Winters south to Costa Rica. Chiriqui, Salvin; Cuba, Gundlach.

As originally described, this species differs from swainsoni in larger size, longer bill, feet, and wings especially, straighter and narrower bill. The back is of a greener olive. The breast and sides of the head are entirely destitute of the buff tinge, or at best this is very faintly indicated on the upper part of the breast. The most characteristic features are seen on the side of the head. Here there is no indication whatever of the light line from nostril to eye, and scarcely any of a light ring round the eye,—the whole region being grayish-olive, relieved slightly by whitish shaft-streaks on the ear-coverts. The sides of body, axillars, and tibiæ are olivaceous-gray, without any of the fulvous tinge seen in swainsoni. The bill measures .40 from tip to nostril, sometimes more; tarsi, 1.21; wing, 4.20; tail, 3.10,—total, about 7.50. Some specimens slightly exceed these dimensions; few, if any, fall short of them.

In autumn the upper surface is somewhat different from that in spring, being less grayish, and with a tinge of rich sepia or snuff-brown, this becoming gradually more appreciable on the tail.

A specimen from Costa Rica is undistinguishable from typical examples from the Eastern United States.

Habits. This species, first described in the ninth volume of the Pacific Railroad Surveys, bears so strong a resemblance to the Olive-backed Thrush (T. swainsoni), that its value as a species has often been disputed. It was first met with in Illinois. Since then numerous specimens have been obtained from the District of Columbia, from Labrador, and the lower Mackenzie River. In the latter regions it was found breeding abundantly. It was also found in large numbers on the Anderson River, but was rare on the Yukon, as well as at Great Slave Lake, occurring there only as a bird of passage to or from more northern breeding-grounds.

In regard to its general habits but little is known. Dr. Coues, who found it in Labrador, breeding abundantly, speaks of meeting with a family of these birds in a deep and thickly wooded ravine. The young were just about to fly. The parents evinced the greatest anxiety for the safety of their brood, endeavoring to lead him from their vicinity by fluttering from bush to bush, constantly uttering a melancholy pheugh, in low whistling tone. He mentions that all he saw uttered precisely the same note, and were very timid, darting into the most impenetrable thickets.

This thrush is a regular visitant to Massachusetts, both in its spring and in its fall migration. It arrives from about the first to the middle of May, and apparently remains about a week. It passes south about the first of October. Occasionally it appears and is present in Massachusetts at the same time with the Turdus swainsoni. From this species I hold it to be unquestionably distinct, and in this opinion I am confirmed by the observations of two very careful and reliable ornithologists, Mr. William Brewster of Cambridge, one of our most promising young naturalists, and Mr. George O. Welch of Lynn, whose experience and observations in the field are unsurpassed. They inform me that there are observable between these two forms certain well-marked and constant differences, that never fail to indicate their distinctness with even greater precision than the constant though less marked differences in their plumage.

The Turdus aliciæ comes a few days the earlier, and is often in full song when the T. swainsoni is silent. The song of the former is not only totally different from that of the latter, but also from that of all our other Wood Thrushes. It most resembles the song of T. pallasi, but differs in being its exact inverse, for whereas the latter begins with its lowest notes and proceeds on an ascending scale, the former begins with its highest, and concludes with its lowest note. The song of the T. swainsoni, on the other hand, exhibits much less variation in the scale, all the notes being of nearly the same altitude.

I am also informed that while the T. swainsoni is far from being a timid species, but may be easily approached, and while it seems almost invariably to prefer the edges of the pine woods, and is rarely observed in open grounds or among the bare deciduous trees, the habits of the T. aliciæ are the exact reverse in these respects. It is not to be found in similar situations, but almost always frequents copses of hard wood, searching for its food among their fallen leaves. It is extremely timid and difficult to approach. As it stands or as it moves upon the ground, it has a peculiar erectness of bearing which at once indicates its true specific character so unmistakably that any one once familiar with its appearance can never mistake it for T. swainsoni nor for any other bird.

The nests measure about 4 inches in diameter and 2¾ in height. The cavity is 2 inches deep, and its diameter 2½ inches. They are unusually compact for the nest of a thrush, and are composed chiefly of an elaborate interweaving of fine sedges, leaves, stems of the more delicate Equisetaceæ, dry grasses, strips of fine bark, and decayed leaves, the whole intermingled with the paniculated inflorescence of grasses. There is little or no lining other than these materials. These nests were all found, with but few exceptions, on the branches of low trees, from two to seven feet from the ground. In a few exceptional cases the nests were built on the ground.

Occasionally nests of this species are found constructed with the base and sides of solid mud, as with the common Robin (Turdus migratorius). In these, as also in some other cases, their nests are usually found on or near the ground. So far as I am aware neither its occasional position on the ground, nor its mud frames, are peculiarities ever noticeable in nests of T. swainsoni.

The eggs were usually four in number. Their color is either a deep green tint, or green slightly tinged with blue; and they are marked with spots of russet and yellowish-brown, varying both in size and frequency. Their mean length is .92 of an inch, and their mean breadth .64. The maximum length is .94 and the minimum .88 of an inch. There is apparently a constant variation from the eggs of the T. swainsoni; those of the aliciæ having a more distinctly blue ground color. The nests are also quite different in their appearance and style of structure. The Hypnum mosses, so marked a feature in the nests of T. swainsoni, as also in those of T. ustulatus, are wholly wanting in those of T. aliciæ.

This bird and the robin are the only species of our thrushes that cross the Arctic Circle to any distance, or reach the shore of the Arctic Ocean. It occurs from Labrador, all round the American coast, to the Aleutian Islands, everywhere bearing its specific character as indicated above. It is extremely abundant on and near the Arctic coast, between the mouth of the Mackenzie River and the Coppermine, more than 200 specimens (mostly with their eggs) having been sent thence to the Smithsonian Institution by Mr. MacFarlane. In all this number there was not a single bird that had any approach to the characters of T. swainsoni, as just given. From the Slave Lake region, on the other hand, T. swainsoni was received in nearly the same abundance, and unmixed during the breeding season with T. aliciæ.

Turdus swainsoni, Cabanis

OLIVE-BACKED THRUSH; SWAINSON’S THRUSH

Turdus swainsoni, Cab. Tschudi, Fauna Peruana, 1844-46, 188.—? Sclater & Salvin, Ibis, 1859, 6 (Guatemala).—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1858, 451 (Ecuador); 1859, 326.—Ib. Catal. 1861, 2, No. 11.—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 216; Rev. Am. B., 1864, 19.—Gundlach, Cab. Jour. 1861, 324 (Cuba).—Ib. Repert. 1865, 229.—Pelzeln, Orn. Brazil. II. 1868, 92 (Marambitanas, Feb. and March).—Lawr. N. Y. Lyc. IX, 91 (Costa Rica).—Ridgway.—Maynard.—Samuels, 152.—Cooper, Birds Cal. 6.—Dall & Bannister. Turdus minor, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. I, 1788, 809 (in part). Turdus olivaceus, Giraud, Birds L. Island, 1843-44, 92 (not of Linn.). (?) Turdus minimus, Lafresnaye, Rev. Zoöl. 1848, 5.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1854, 111.—Bryant, Pr. Bost. Soc. VII, 1860, 226 (Bogota).—Lawrence, Ann. N. Y. Lyc. 1863. (Birds Panama, IV, No. 384.)

Sp. Char. Upper parts uniform olivaceous, with a decided shade of green. The fore part of breast, the throat and chin, pale brownish-yellow; rest of lower parts white; the sides washed with brownish-olive. Sides of the throat and fore part of the breast with sub-rounded spots of well-defined brown, darker than the back; the rest of the breast (except medially) with rather less distinct spots that are more olivaceous. Tibiæ yellowish-brown. Broad ring round the eye, loral region, and a general tinge on the side of the head, clear reddish buff. Length, 7.00; wing, 4.15; tail, 3.10; tarsus, 1.10.

Hab. Eastern North America; westward to Humboldt Mountain and Upper Columbia; perhaps occasionally straggling as far as California; north to Slave Lake and Fort Yukon; south to Ecuador and Brazil. Cuba, Gundlach; Costa Rica, Lawr.

Specimens examined from the northern regions (Great Slave Lake, Mackenzie River, and Yukon) to Guatemala; from Atlantic States to East Humboldt Mountains, Nevada, and from intervening localities. The extremes of variation are the brownish-olive of eastern and the clear dark greenish-olive of remote western specimens. There is no observable difference between a Guatemalan skin and one from Fort Bridger, Utah.

Habits. The Olive-backed Thrush, or “Swamp Robin,” has very nearly the same habitat during the breeding season as that of the kindred species with which it was so long confounded. Although Wilson seems to have found the nest and eggs among the high lands of Northern Georgia, it is yet a somewhat more northern species. It does not breed so far south as Massachusetts, or if so, the cases must be exceptional and very rare, nor even in Western Maine, where the “Ground Swamp Robin” (T. pallasi) is quite abundant. It only becomes common in the neighborhood of Calais. It is, however, most widely distributed over nearly the entire continent, breeding from latitude 44° to high Arctic regions. It winters in Guatemala and southward as far as Ecuador and Brazil.

In its habits this thrush is noticeably different from the T. pallasi, being much more arboreal, frequenting thick woods; rarely seen, except during its migrations, in open ground, and seeking its food more among the branches of the trees.

Mr. Ridgway found this species very abundant among the Wahsatch Mountains, where it was one of the most characteristic summer birds of that region. It was breeding plentifully in the cañons, where its song could be heard almost continually. It inhabited an intermediate position between T. auduboni and T. fuscescens, delighting most in the shrubbery along the streams of the cañons and passes, leaving to the T. auduboni the secluded ravines of the pine regions higher up, and to the T. fuscescens the willow thickets of the river valleys. He did not meet with it farther west than the East Humboldt Mountains. The song, in his opinion, resembles that of the Wood Thrush (T. mustelinus) in modulations; but the notes want the power, while they possess a finer and more silvery tone.

The song of this species has a certain resemblance to that of T. pallasi, being yet quite distinct, and the differences readily recognized by a familiar ear. It is more prolonged; the notes are more equal and rise with more regularity and more gradually, are richer, and each note is more complete in itself. Its song of lamentation when robbed of its young is full of indescribable pathos and beauty, haunting one who has once heard it long after.

When driven from the nest, the female always flies to a short distance and conceals herself; making no complaints, and offering no resistance.

These birds, in a single instance, have been known to reach Eastern Massachusetts early in April, in an unusually early season, but they generally pass north a few weeks later. They make no prolonged stay, and are with us rarely more than three or four days. Their return in the fall appears to be, at times, by a more inland route. They are then not so numerous near the coast, but occasionally are abundant.

Their nests in Nova Scotia, wherever observed, were among the thick woods, on horizontal branches of a forest-tree, usually about five feet from the ground. Those observed in the Arctic regions by Mr. Kennicott were frequently not more than two feet from the ground.

The nests average about four inches in diameter and two in height, the cavity being three inches wide by about one and a half deep. They are more elaborately and neatly constructed than those of any other of our thrushes, except perhaps of T. ustulatus. conspicuous among the materials are the Hypnum mosses, which by their dark fibrous masses give a very distinctive character to these nests, and distinguish them from all except those of the T. ustulatus, which they resemble. Besides these materials are found fine sedges, leaves, stems of equisetaceous plants, red glossy vegetable fibres, the flowering steins of the Cladonia mosses, lichens, fine strips of bark, etc.

The eggs, which are four or five in number, exhibit noticeable variations in size, shape, and shades of coloring, bearing some resemblance to those of T. ustulatus and to the eggs asserted to be those of T. nanus, but are sufficiently distinct, and are still more so from those of T. aliciæ. They range in length from .83 to .94, with a mean of .88, their mean breadth is .66, the maximum .69, and the minimum .63. Their ground color is usually bluish-green, sometimes light blue with hardly a tinge of green, and the spots are of a yellowish-brown, or russet-brown, or a mixture of both colors, more or less confluent, with marked variations in this respect.

Turdus swainsoni, var. ustulatus, Nuttall

OREGON THRUSH

Turdus ustulatus, Nuttall, Man. I, 1840, 400 (Columbia River).—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 215, pl. lxxxi, fig. 1.—Ib. Rev. Am. B. 1864, 18.—Cooper & Suckley, P. R. Rep. XII, II, 1860, 171.—Ridgway, Pr. A. N. S. Philad. 1869, 127.—Dall & Bannister, Tr. Chic. Acad.—Cooper, Birds Cal., 5.

Sp. Char. General appearance of fuscescens, but with pattern of swainsoni; the buff orbital ring as conspicuous as in latter. The olive above is more brown than in this, and less yellowish than in fuscescens, becoming decidedly more rufescent on wings and less observably so on tail. Pectoral aspect different from fuscescens, the spots narrower and cuneate, sharply defined, and arranged in longitudinal series; in color they are a little darker than the crown. Length, 7.50; wing, 3.75; tail, 3.00; tarsus, 1.12.

Hab. Pacific Province of United States. Tres Marias Isl., Guatemala (winter), Mus. S. I.

This well-marked race is to be compared with swainsoni, not with fuscescens, as has generally been done; the latter, except in shade of colors, it scarcely resembles at all; still greater evidence that such is its affinity is that the T. ustulatus builds its nest on a tree, and lays a spotted egg, like swainsoni, while fuscescens nests on or near the ground, perhaps never in a tree, and lays a plain blue egg. The song of the present bird is also scarcely distinguishable from that of swainsoni. Upon the whole, we see no reason why this should not be considered as a Pacific Province form of the Turdus swainsoni; at least it becomes necessary to do so, after referring to T. pallasi as geographical races, the T. auduboni and T. nanus.

Habits. So far as we are aware, this thrush has a very limited distribution, being mainly restricted to the Pacific coast region from California to Alaska in the breeding season, though migrating southward in winter to Guatemala. Dr. Kennerly found it in great abundance breeding at Chiloweyuck Depot, July 3, 1859. Dr. Cooper also found it one of the most abundant of the summer residents in Washington Territory, arriving there in May and remaining until the beginning of September. Three specimens of this thrush were obtained at Sitka, by Mr. Bischoff. Mr. Ridgway met with only a single specimen east of the Sierra Nevada, though on that range he found it an abundant summer bird.

In its general appearance it has a marked resemblance to Wilson’s Thrush (T. fuscescens), but its habits and notes, as well as its nest and eggs, clearly point its nearer affinity to Swainson’s Thrush (T. swainsoni), its song being scarcely different from that of the latter species. Like this species, it frequents the thickets or brushwood along the mountain streams, and, except just after its arrival, it is not at all shy. In crossing the Sierra Nevada in July, 1867, Mr. Ridgway first met with this species. He describes it as an exquisite songster. At one of the camps, at an altitude of about 5,000 feet, they were found unusually plentiful. He speaks of their song as consisting of “ethereal warblings,—outbursts of wild melody.” “Although its carols were heard everywhere in the depth of the ravine, scarcely one of the little musicians could be seen.” “The song of this thrush,” he adds, “though possessing all the wild, solemn melody of that of the Wood Thrush (T. mustelinus) is weaker, but of a much finer or more silvery tone, and more methodical delivery. It is much like that of the T. swainsoni, but in the qualities mentioned is even superior.”

Dr. Cooper found its nests with eggs about the middle of June. These were most usually built on a small horizontal branch, and were very strongly constructed of twigs, grasses, roots, and leaves, usually covered on the outside entirely with the bright green Hypnum mosses peculiar to that region, which in the damp climate near the coast continue to grow in that position, and form large masses. The number of eggs is usually five.

Dr. Cooper states that these thrushes sing most in the early morning and in the evening, when numbers may be heard answering one another on all sides. They do not affect the darkest thickets so much as the Hermit Thrush, but are often seen feeding in the gardens in the open sunshine.

Dr. Suckley, who found them quite abundant in the neighborhood of Fort Steilacoom, on the edge of the forest, and in swampy land, describes the song as a low, soft, sad, and lively whistle, confined to one note, and repeated at regular intervals. Mr. Nuttall, the first to describe this form, speaks of it as shy and retiring, and as in the habit of gathering insects from the ground. His ear, so quick to appreciate the characteristics of the songs of birds, which showed a close resemblance between the notes of this bird and that of Wilson’s Thrush (T. fuscescens), enabled him to detect very distinct and easily recognizable differences. It is much more interrupted and is not so prolonged. The warble of this bird he describes as resembling wit-wit t´villia, and wit-wit, t´villia-t´villia. His call when surprised was wit-wit.

All the nests of this species that have fallen under my observation are large, compact, strongly constructed, and neat. They measure about 5 inches in their external diameter, with a depth externally of 3; the cavity is comparatively shallow, being rarely 2 inches in depth. The external portions are constructed almost entirely of Hypnum mosses, matted together and sparingly interwoven with dry leaves and fine fibrous roots, and are lined with finer materials of the same kind. These nests most nearly resemble in their material and in their position those of Swainson’s Thrush.

Mr. Hepburn found these birds very abundant about Victoria. It does not usually breed there before the last of May, though in one exceptional instance he found a nest with young birds on the 24th of that month.

The eggs vary in size and shape, ranging from .77 to .94 in length, and from .65 to .69 in breadth. They also vary in their ground color and in the tints of the spots and markings. The ground color is light green or light blue, and the markings are variously yellowish-brown and lilac, or dark brown and slate.

Mr. Grayson found this thrush very abundant in the month of January, in the thickest of the woods, in the islands of the Three Marias, on the Pacific coast of Mexico. They were very timid and shy, more so than any bird that he saw on those islands. It frequently uttered a low plaintive whistle, and seemed solitary in its habits.

Turdus pallasi, Cabanis

RUFOUS-TAILED THRUSH; HERMIT THRUSH

Turdus pallasii, Cabanis, Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1847 (I), 205.—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 212.—Ib. Rev. Am. B. 1864, 14.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1859, 325 ??.—Ib. Catal. 1861, 2, No. 7.—Ridgway.—Maynard.—Samuels, 148. Turdus solitarius, Wilson, Amer. Orn. V, 1812, 95 (not of Linnæus).—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1857, 212. Turdus minor, Bon. Obs. Wilson, 1825, No. 72. Turdus guttatus, Cabanis, Tschudi, Fauna Peruana, 1844, 187 (not Muscicapa guttata of Pallas).

Additional figures: Aud. Birds Am. III, pl. cxlvi.—Ib. Orn. Biog. I, pl. lviii.

Sp. Char. Tail slightly emarginate. Above light olive-brown, with a scarcely perceptible shade of reddish, passing, however, into decided rufous on the rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail, and to a less degree on the outer surface of the wings. Beneath white, with a scarcely appreciable shade of pale buff across the fore part of the breast, and sometimes on the throat; the sides of the throat and the fore part of the breast with rather sharply defined subtriangular spots of dark olive-brown; the sides of the breast with paler and less distinct spots of the same. Sides of the body under the wings of a paler shade than the back. A whitish ring round the eye; ear-coverts very obscurely streaked with paler. Length, 7.50 inches; wing, 3.84; tail, 3.25; tarsus, 1.16; No. 2,092.

Hab. Eastern North America. Mexico? Not found in Cuba, fide Gundlach.

In spring the olive above is very much that of eastern specimens of swainsoni; in winter specimens it is much browner, and almost as much so as in fuscescens. Young birds have the feathers of the head, back, and wing coverts streaked centrally with drop-shaped spots of rusty yellowish.

Habits. Until quite recently the “Ground Swamp Robin,” or Hermit Thrush, has not been distinguished from the closely allied species T. swainsoni, and all accounts of writers have blended both in singular confusion. My colleague, Professor Baird, in the summer of 1844, was the first to suggest the distinctness of the two species. By the common people of Maine and the British Provinces this difference has long been generally recognized, this species being known as the “Ground Swamp Robin,” and the other as the “Swamp Robin.”

The present species is found throughout Eastern North America to the Mississippi, and breeds from Massachusetts to high arctic regions. It is only occasionally found breeding so far south as Massachusetts; through which State it passes in its spring migrations, sometimes as early as the 10th of April; usually reaching Calais, Maine, by the 15th of the same month.

It is a very abundant bird throughout Maine, where it begins to breed during the last week of May, and where it also probably has two broods in a season.

The greater number appear to pass the winter in the Southern States; it being common in Florida, and even occasionally seen during that season as far north as latitude 38° in Southern Illinois, according to Mr. Ridgway.

It rarely, if ever, sings during its migrations; appears in small straggling companies, frequents both thickets and open fields, and is unsuspicious and easily approached.

The song of this species is very fine, having many of the characteristics of that of the Wood Thrush (T. mustelinus). It is as sweet, has the same tinkling sounds, as of a bell, but is neither so powerful nor so prolonged, and rises more rapidly in its intonations. It begins with low, sweet notes, and ends abruptly with its highest, sharp ringing notes.

Taken from the nest they are easily tamed, and are quite lively and playful; but their want of cleanliness renders them very undesirable pets. When their nest is visited they make no complaints, but retire to a distance. Not so, however, when their natural enemy, the hawk, appears; these they at once assail and seek to drive away, uttering loud and clear chirps, and peculiar twittering sounds.

The nest of this thrush is always built on the ground, most generally either under low bushes or in the open ground, rarely, if ever, among thick trees, and for the most part in low swampy places. Both nest and eggs closely resemble those of Wilson’s Thrush (T. fuscescens). In Parsboro, Nova Scotia, I found one of the nests built in the very midst of the village, close to a dwelling, though on a spot so marshy as to be almost unapproachable. The nests are 3 inches in height and 5 in diameter, with a cavity 3¼ inches wide by 1¾ deep. They are composed of decayed deciduous leaves, remnants of dried plants, sedges and grasses, intermingled with twigs, and lined with finer grasses, sedges, and strips of bark.

The eggs are of a uniform bluish-green color, and range in length from .88 to .94, with an average of .63 of an inch.

Turdus pallasi, var. nanus, Audubon

DWARF HERMIT THRUSH

Turdus nanus, Aud. Orn. Biog. V, 1839, 201, pl. cci.—Baird, Birds N. A. 1858, 213; Rev. Am. B. 1864, 15.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1859.—Ib. Catal. 1861.—Dall & Bannister.—Cooper, Birds Cal., p. 4. Turdus pallasi, var. nanus, Ridgway, Rep. Kings Exped. V, 1872. ? Turdus aonalaschkæ, Gmelin, S. N. I, 1788, 808. ?? Muscicapa guttata, Pallas, Zoög. Rosso-Asiat. II, 1811, 465.

Sp. Char. Above with the clear dark olive of swainsoni, but this even purer and more plumbeous. Upper tail-coverts (but not lower part of rump) becoming more rufous, the tail abruptly darker, richer, and more purplish-rufous, approaching to chestnut. The clear olive of the neck passes into brownish-plumbeous along sides; pectoral spots more sparse and less pure black than in T. pallasi. The white beneath is of an almost snowy purity, appreciably different from the cottony-white of T. pallasi. Wing, 3.30; tail, 3.00; bill, .36; tarsus, 1.07.

A very tangible and constant character possessed by this bird is the more slender and depressed bill, as compared with that of T. pallasi. Specimens vary only in intensity of colors; these variations very limited, and corresponding with those of T. pallasi. In all cases, however, their precise pattern and peculiar distribution is retained.

Hab. Western Province of North America, eastward from Kodiak to Cape St. Lucas. Arizona, Coues.

Habits. This small race of the Hermit Thrush was first noticed by Dr. Pickering, and described by Mr. Audubon from an imperfect skin. It has since been obtained abundantly on the Pacific slope, and Mr. Ridgway procured a specimen as far east as the East Humboldt Mountains, which he considers its eastern limit.

In its habits it is said to be, like T. pallasi, almost exclusively terrestrial. Dr. Heermann mentions finding it abundant in California, and breeding among the stunted oaks covering the sand-hills of San Francisco. Dr. Coues found it in Arizona, but speaks of it as rare and migratory, occurring chiefly in spring and autumn, and as a shy and retiring species. Dr. Cooper, in his Report on the Birds of California, describes it as shy and timid, preferring dark and shady thickets, feeding chiefly on the ground, running rapidly, and searching for insects among the leaves.

Near San Diego they began to sing about the 25th of April. The song, consisting of a few low ringing notes, resembles that of Wilson’s Thrush (T. fuscescens), and also that of T. ustulatus, but is not so loud. Their note of alarm is a loud and ringing chirp, repeated and answered by others at a long distance.

At Santa Cruz, on the first of June, Dr. Cooper met with several of their nests, which, though probably erroneously, he supposed to belong to the Dwarf Hermit Thrush. They were all built in thickets under the shade of cottonwood-trees. Each nest was about five feet from the ground, and all contained eggs, from two to four in number, in differing stages of incubation. The nests were built of dry leaves, roots, fibres, grasses, and bark, without any mud, and were lined with decayed leaves. Their height and external diameter measured 4 inches. The diameter of the cavity was 2½ inches and the depth 2¼. The eggs measured .90 by .70 of an inch. They are of a pale bluish-green, speckled with cinnamon-brown, chiefly at the larger end.

The nest, supposed to be of this species, supplied by Dr. Cooper, is large for the bird; constructed of a base loosely made up of mosses, lichens, and coarse fibres of plants. It is a strong and compact structure of matted leaves, put together when in a moist and decaying condition; with these there are interwoven roots, twigs, and strong fibres, surrounding the nest with a stout band and strengthening the rim. In fact, it corresponds so well—as do the eggs also—with those of T. ustulatus, that it is extremely probable that they really belong to that species. The only observable difference is the absence of the Hypnum mosses characteristic of northern ustulatus.

Dall and Bannister mention in their list of Alaska birds that the species is not common there. It was also taken at Sitka and Kodiak by Bischoff.

The fact that this thrush builds its nest above the ground, and lays spotted eggs, if verified, would at once warrant our giving it independent rank as a species, instead of considering it as a local race of pallasi.

Turdus pallasi, var. auduboni, Baird

ROCKY MOUNTAIN HERMIT THRUSH

Turdus auduboni, Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, 1864, 16.—Ridgway, P. A. N. S. 1869, 129.—Elliot, Illust. (fig.). Merula silens, Swainson, Philos. Mag. I, 1827, 369 (not Turdus silens of Vieillot, Encycl. Méth. II, 1823, 647, based on T. mustelinus, Wils. = T. fuscescens).—Ib. Fauna Bor.-Amer. II, 1831, 186.—Baird, Birds N. Amer. 1858, 213, and 922.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1858, 325 (La Parada), and 1859, 325 (Oaxaca).—Ib. Catal. Am. Birds, 1861, 2, No. 9.

Sp. Char. Colors much as in Turdus nanus, but the upper tail-coverts scarcely different from the back. Tail yellowish-rufous. Length of wing, 4.18; tail, 3.60; bill from nostril, .45; tarsus, 1.26.

Hab. Rocky Mountains, from Fort Bridger south into Mexico. Orizaba (Alpine regions), Sumichrast.

This is a very distinct race of thrushes, although it may be questioned whether it be truly a species. It is, however, sufficiently distinct from the eastern and western Hermit Thrushes to warrant our giving it a place of some kind in the systems.

The young plumage differs from that of pallasi as do the adults of the two, and in about the same way. The olive is very much purer, with a greenish instead of a brownish cast, and the tail is very much lighter, inclining to dull ochraceous instead of rufous; this yellowish instead of rufous cast is apparent on the wings also. The yellowish “drops” on head, back, etc., are very much narrower than in pallasi, while the greater coverts, instead of being distinctly tipped with yellowish, merely just perceptibly fade in color at tips.

Habits. At present we have but little knowledge of the habits of this form of T. pallasi, and no information whatever regarding its nesting or eggs.

In its distribution it is confined to the central range of mountains from Fort Bridger to Southern Mexico. This species, there known as “Solitario,” is common in the Alpine region of Vera Cruz (as well as in all the elevated regions of Central Mexico), frequenting the pine woods in the district of Orizaba. Mr. Sumichrast obtained it at all seasons of the year at Moyoapam, in that vicinity; a locality the height of which approximates 2,500 metres. It is also found at a height of 1,200 metres, near the city of Orizaba.

Mr. Ridgway calls this bird the “Rocky Mountain Hermit Thrush.” He states that he found it common in the Wahsatch Mountains, but that, on account of its retiring habits, it was seldom seen. It there lives chiefly in the deep ravines in the pine region, exhibiting an attachment to these solitudes rather than to the thickets along the watercourses lower down; the latter it leaves to the T. swainsoni. Owing to the reserved manners of this bird, as well as to the great difficulty of reaching its abode, there were few opportunities presented for learning much concerning its habits, nor did he hear its song. In its flight the pale ochraceous band across the bases of its quills was a very conspicuous feature in the appearance of its species, leading Mr. Ridgway to mistake it at first for the Myiadestes townsendii,—also an inhabitant of the same localities,—so much did it look like that bird, which it further resembled in its noiseless, gliding flight.

Subgenus TURDUS, Linn

Turdus iliacus.

1718

Of Turdus, in its most restricted sense, we have no purely American representatives, although it belongs to the fauna of the New World in consequence of one species occurring in Greenland, that meeting-ground of the birds of America and Europe; which, however, we include in the present work, as related much more closely to the former.

This Greenland species, Turdus iliacus, is closely related to T. viscivorus, the type of the genus, and comes much closer to the American Robins (Planesticus) than to the Wood Thrushes (Hylocichla).

Turdus iliacus, Linn

REDWING THRUSH

Turdus iliacus, Linn. Syst. Nat. 10th ed. 1758, 168, and of European authors.—Reinhardt, Ibis, 1861, 6 (Greenland). Baird, Rev. Am. B. 1864, 23 (Greenland).

Sp. Char. This species is smaller than our Robin (T. migratorius), but of a similar grayish-olive above, including the head. The under parts are white; the feathers of the lower throat and breast streaked with brown. The sides, axillars, and inner wing-covert are reddish-cinnamon. A conspicuous white streak over the eye and extending as far back as the nape. Bill black, yellow at base of lower jaw. Legs pale-colored. Second quill longer than fifth. Length, about 8.25; wing, 4.64; tail, 3.45; bill, from gape, 1.07; from nostril, .44; tarsus, 1.16; middle toe and claw, 1.15. Specimen described: 18,718, ♂, a British specimen received from the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich.

Hab. Greenland, in the New World.

The occurrence of this well-known European species in Greenland brings it within the limits of the American Fauna. Two Greenland specimens are recorded by Dr. Reinhardt: one of them shot at Frederickshaab, October 20, 1845.

Habits. The Redwing can probably only claim a place in the fauna of North America as an occasional visitant. Of the two specimens observed in Greenland, one was shot late in October. It is not known to breed there.

This species, during its breeding season, is found only in the more northern portions of Europe; only occasionally, and very rarely, breeding so far south as England. It makes its appearance in that kingdom on its southern migrations, coming in large flocks from Northern and Northeastern Europe, and arriving usually before the end of October. During their stay in England they frequent parks and pleasure-grounds that are ornamented with clumps of trees. During mild and open weather they seek their subsistence in pasture lands and moist meadows, feeding principally on worms and snails. In severe winters, when the ground is closed by frost or covered by snow, the Redwings are among the first birds to suffer, and often perish in large numbers.

During the winter they extend their migrations to the more southern portions of Europe, to Sicily, Malta, and even to Smyrna. In early spring they return to the more central portions of the continent, and leave in May for their more northern places of resort.

They nest in trees in the moist woods of Norway and Sweden. Their nests resemble those of the common Fieldfare, T. pilaris. The outside is composed of sticks, weeds, and coarse grass, gathered wet, and matted with a small quantity of moist clay. They are lined with a thick bed of fine grass.

The Redwing is said to possess a delightful note, and is called the Nightingale of Norway. Linnæus, speaking of this bird, claims that its high and varied notes rival even those of that far-famed vocalist.

During the summer the Redwing advances to the extreme north, visiting the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Northern Russia. The general character of its food, its inability to feed exclusively on berries, and the fact that it perishes from starvation in severe winters, would seem to prove that its occurrence in Greenland so late as October must have been purely accidental. It is not probable that its presence in North America will be found to be a common event.

The eggs measure 1.06 inches in length by .81 in breadth. The ground color is a light green with a bluish tinge thickly covered with russet or reddish-brown spots, confluent at the larger end.

Subgenus PLANESTICUS, Bonap

Planesticus, Bonap. Comptes Rendus, 1854. (Type Turdus jamaicensis, Gmelin.)

Turdus migratorius.

853

This section of the Thrushes is well represented in America, especially in its middle and southern portions, and its members have a close resemblance to the typical European species in the full form, stout legs, etc., as already stated. The spots on the throat, and their absence elsewhere on the under part of the body, are sufficient to distinguish them.

Of the two North American species one is the well-known Robin, the other a closely related form from Cape St. Lucas; which indeed is probably only a local race or variety, although nothing exactly like it has yet been found away from Lower California. The following diagnosis may serve to distinguish the two birds:—

Common Characters. Throat white with dark streaks. Rest of under parts, including lining of wing, reddish or ochraceous; the anal region whitish; lower eyelid white. Nest on trees. Eggs plain blue.

Above slaty-olive, approaching to black on the head. Beneath rufous-chestnut. Spot in lore and on upper eyelid of white. Tail, 4.25. Hab. Whole of North America; Mexico, south to Oaxaca and Cordova; Cuba (very rare) and Tobago, of West Indies … var. migratorius.

Above dull grayish-ash, not darker on the head. Beneath pale yellowish-buff; tinged with ashy across breast; a continuous white stripe from the lores over and a quarter of an inch behind the eye. More white on belly and flanks than in T. migratorius. Bill stouter; tail only 3.75, while the wing is the same. Hab. Cape St. Lucas, Lower California … var. confinis.

Turdus migratorius, var. migratorius, Linn

ROBIN; AMERICAN REDBREAST

Turdus migratorius, Linn. S. N. 12th ed. 1766, 292.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1856, 294; 1859, 331; 1864, 172.—Ib. Catal. Am. Birds, 1861, 4.—Sclater & Salvin, Ibis, 1860, 396 (Coban).—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 218; Rev. Am. B. 1864, 28.—Cooper & Suckley, P. R. R. R. XII, II, 1859, 172.—Dresser, Ibis, 1865, 475. (Texas, winter).—Coues, Pr. A. N. S. 1866, 64 (Arizona).—Dall & Bannister (Alaska).—Cooper, Birds Cal.—Samuels, 154.

Figures: Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept. II, pl. lx, lxi.—Wilson, Am. Orn. I, 1808, pl. ii.—Doughty, Cab. N. H. I, 1830, pl. xii.—Audubon, Birds Am. III, pl. cxlii; Orn. Biog. II, pl. cxxxi.

Sp. Char. Tail slightly rounded. Above olive-gray; top and sides of the head black. Chin and throat white, streaked with black. Eyelids, and a spot above the eye anteriorly, white. Under parts and inside of the wings, chestnut-brown. The under tail-coverts and anal region, with tibiæ, white, showing the plumbeous inner portions of the feathers. Wings dark brown, the feathers all edged more or less with pale ash. Tail still darker, the extreme feathers tipped with white. Bill yellow, dusky along the ridge and at the tip. Length, 9.75; wing, 5.43; tail, 4.75; tarsus, 1.25.

Hab. The whole of North America; Mexico, Oaxaca, and Cordova; Guatemala; Cuba, very rare, Gundlach; Tobago, Kirk; Bermuda, Jones; Orizaba (Alpine regions, breeding abundantly), Sumichrast.

Young birds have transverse blackish bars on the back, and blackish spots beneath. The shafts of the lesser coverts are streaked with brownish-yellow; the back feathers with white.

Turdus migratorius.

There are some variations, both of color and proportions, between eastern and western specimens of the Robin. In the latter there is a tendency to a longer tail, though the difference is not marked; and, as a rule, they slightly exceed eastern specimens in size. The broad white tip to the lateral tail-feather—so conspicuous a mark of eastern birds—is scarcely to be found at all in any western ones; and in the latter the black of the head is very sharply defined against the lighter, clearer ash of the back, there hardly ever being a tendency in it to continue backward in the form of central spots to the feathers, as is almost constantly seen in eastern examples; of western specimens, the rufous, too, is appreciably lighter than in eastern. As regards the streaks on the throat, the black or the white may either largely predominate in specimens from one locality.

In autumn and winter each rufous feather beneath is bordered by a more or less conspicuous crescent of white; in addition to this, most of the lighter individuals (♀?), at this season, have an ashy suffusion over the breast and flanks; and this, we have observed, is more general and more noticeable in western than in eastern specimens. In fall and winter the color of the bill, too, changes, becoming at this season either partially or wholly dusky, instead of almost entirely yellow, as seen in spring and summer examples.

Mexican specimens, found breeding in the Alpine regions as far south as Orizaba and Mirador, most resemble the western series; one, however (No. 38,120 ♂, Orizaba), but in the autumnal plumage, and therefore very possibly a migrant from the North, is hardly distinguishable from No. 32,206, Georgia; it is about identical in proportions, and the rufous is of a castaneous shade, like the deepest colored eastern examples; the white tip to the outer tail-feather is as broad and conspicuous as is ever seen in the latter.

Habits. Scarcely any American bird has a wider range of geographical distribution, or is more numerous wherever found, than this thrush. From Greenland on the extreme northeast to the plateau of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, the Robin is everywhere a very abundant species. Single specimens have been obtained as far south as Coban, Guatemala. Its distribution in the breeding season is hardly less restricted, occurring alike on the shores of the Arctic Seas and on the high lands of Vera Cruz. In the winter months it is most abundant in the Southern States, while in the Middle and even the Northern States, in favorable localities, it may be found throughout the year; its migrations being influenced more by the question of food than of climate. In the valleys among the White Mountains, where snow covers the ground from October to June, and where the cold reaches the freezing-point of mercury, flocks of the Robin remain during the entire winter, attracted by the abundance of berries.

On the Pacific Coast the Robin is only a winter visitant in California; a very few remaining to breed, and those only among the hills. They reach Vancouver Island early in March, and are very abundant.

In New England, where the Robins are held in great esteem, and where they exist under very favorable circumstances, their numbers have very largely increased, especially in the villages. They cause not a little annoyance to fruit cultivators by their depredations upon the productions of the garden, especially cherries and strawberries. They are a voracious bird, and no doubt destroy a large quantity of small fruit, but there is abundant evidence that this is more than compensated by their destruction of the most injurious insects, upon which they wage an incessant war. The investigations of Mr. J. W. P. Jenks and Professor Treadwell establish conclusively their great services in this direction.

The experiments of the latter gentleman show that the nestlings of the Robin require a vast amount of animal food, forty per cent more than their own weight being consumed by the young bird within twenty-four hours, and, what is more, demonstrated to be necessary to its existence.

PLATE II.

1. Turdus confinis, Baird., Cape St. Lucas, 23789.

2. Turdus nævius, Gm. Cala., 21363.

3. Turdus migratorius, Linn., Penn., 1851.

4. Turdus iliacus, Linn., Europe.

In Massachusetts a few Robins remain throughout the year, but the greater proportion leave early in November, returning late in February or early in March.

The song of the Robin is deservedly popular. While many of our birds possess far superior powers of melody, and exhibit a much greater variety in their song, there are none that exceed it in its duration or extent. It is the first bird in spring to open and one of the last to close the great concert of Nature. Their song is earnest, simple, and thrilling, and is said by Audubon to resemble that of the European Blackbird, Turdus merula.

The Robin, when taken young, may be readily tamed, and soon becomes contented and accustomed to confinement. They are devoted to their young, watchful, attentive, and provident. They begin to construct their nest in early spring before the trees put forth their leaves, and often in very exposed positions. The size of the nest, in fact, makes concealment impossible. These nests are sometimes placed in quite remarkable positions, such as the beams of a ship partly finished, and where the carpenters were every day at work, and similar situations indicating a great familiarity. Their favorite place is the horizontal branch of an apple-tree, about ten feet from the ground.

The nest of the Robin is a large and coarsely constructed combination of rude materials. It is composed of a base of straw, leaves, mosses, stems, and dry grasses, upon which a cup-shaped fabric of clay or mud is built. The whole is lined with finer dry grasses and vegetable fibres. They average 5 inches in height and the same in diameter. Their cavity is 2¾ inches deep, with a diameter of 2½ inches.

The eggs of the Robin, which are usually five and sometimes six in number, are of a uniform bright greenish-blue color, liable to fade when exposed to light, but when fresh exhibiting a very distinct and bright tint. They vary in size from 1.25 to 1.12 inches in length, and in breadth from .88 to .75 of an inch. Their mean measurement is 1.18 by .81.

Turdus migratorius, var. confinis, Baird

CAPE ST. LUCAS ROBIN

Turdus confinis, Baird, Rev. Am. B. 1864, 29.—Elliot, Birds America.—Cooper, Birds Cal., 9.

Sp. Char. No. 23,789. Entire upper parts and sides of head and neck uniform grayish-ash, with perhaps a faint tinge of olivaceous, less than in eastern specimens of T. migratorius. The central portions of the feathers of the top of head are rather darker than the edges, though almost inappreciably so, and not imparting a general dusky appearance. The chin and throat are white, streaked with ashy-brown. The jugulum and breast are pale yellowish-buff; the axillars, inner wing-coverts, and sides of the breast similarly, but rather more decidedly colored. The belly and edges of the crissal feathers are white, the hinder parts of the flanks ashy. There is a distinct whitish stripe from the lores over and a quarter of an inch behind the eye; the lower eyelid is also white. The tail-feathers are worn, but there is an indication of a narrow white tip. The feathers of the jugulum, especially of the sides, are tipped with ashy like the back, as in immature specimens of T. migratorius. The greater wing-coverts are tipped with dull white. The bill is yellowish; the upper mandible and the tip of lower tinged with dusky. The feet are pale brown.

The length cannot be given accurately, as the skin is much drawn up. The wing, however, measures 5.10 inches, its tip reaching 1.40 beyond the longest secondary; tail, 4.10; tarsus, 1.20; middle toe and claw, 1.07; exposed portion of culmen, .92; from tip to open portion of nostrils, .60.

Hab. Todos Santos, Cape St. Lucas.

The specimen with a general resemblance to an immature T. migratorius (especially the western variety) in the white superciliary streak and general markings, is much lighter beneath than in any of the many skins of T. migratorius examined; there being none of the dark chestnut or cinnamon shade, but rather a light buff; the belly and flanks are much more purely white. The superciliary stripe extends farther behind the eye; indeed, in most specimens of migratorius the white is nearly confined to the eyelids. The bill and wings are rather longer than usual in migratorius; the middle toe, on the other hand, appears shorter. Nothing is on record in regard to the habits of this bird.

Subgenus HESPEROCICHLA, Baird

Hesperocichla, Baird, Rev. Am. Birds, I, 1864, 12. (Type Turdus nævius, Gm.)

Turdus nævius.

9814

The single species of this subgenus differs in form from the Robins (Planesticus), in the more awl-shaped bill, the curved commissure, and the absence of a notch at the end; the longer, slenderer, and straighter claws; and in the dissimilarity in color of the sexes. In the latter respects it agrees with Merula of Europe and Middle America; in which, however, the bill is distinctly notched, and less attenuated. The tail is shorter and broader than in Planesticus, more as in true Turdus or Hylocichla.

Turdus nævius, Gmel

OREGON ROBIN; VARIED THRUSH

Turdus nævius, Gm. S. N. I, 1788, 817.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1857, 4; 1859, 331.—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 219; Rev. Am. B. 1864, 32.—Cooper & Suckley, P. R. R. R. XII, II, 1859, 172.—Coues, Pr. A. N. S. 1866, 65. (Quotes occurrence on Colorado River, above Fort Mohave, as exceptional.)—Maynard (Massachusetts!).—Turnbull (N. Jersey!).—Dall & Bannister (Alaska).—Cooper, Birds Cal. 10. Orpheus meruloides, Rich. F. B. A. II, 1831, 187, pl. xxxviii.

Other figures: Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept. II, 1807, pl. lxvi.—Aud. Orn. Biog. IV, 1838, pl. ccclxix, and ccccxxxiii.—Ib. Birds Am. III, pl. cxliii.

Sp. Char. Tail nearly even; the lateral feather shorter. Above, rather dark bluish slate; under parts generally, a patch on the upper eyelids continuous with a stripe behind it along the side of the head and neck, the lower eyelids, two bands across the wing coverts and the edges of the quills, in part, rufous orange-brown; middle of belly white. Sides of the head and neck, continuous with a broad pectoral transverse band, black. Most of tail feathers with a terminal patch of brownish white. Bill black. Feet yellow. Female more olivaceous above; the white of the abdomen more extended; the brown beneath paler; the pectoral band obsolete. Length, 9.75 inches; wing, 5.00; tail, 3.90; tarsus, 1.25.

Young (45,897, Sitka, Aug. 1866; F. Bischoff). Exactly resembling the adult female, having no spots other than seen in the adult plumage; but the pectoral collar is composed only of badly defined blackish transverse crescents, and the upper parts anterior to the rump are of an umber brown tint. The markings about the head and on the wings are precisely as in the adult.

This species does not appear to be liable to any noticeable variation.

Hab. West coast of North America, from Behring Straits to California; straggling to Great Bear Lake. Accidental on Long Island (Cab. G. N. Lawrence), New Jersey (Cab. Dr. Samuel Cabot), and Ipswich, Mass. (Cab. Boston Society Natural History); Iowa (Allen).

Turdus nævius.

Habits. The accidental occurrence of a few specimens of this well-marked bird in the Eastern States is its only claim to a place in that fauna, it being strictly a western species, belonging to the Pacific Coast. It was first discovered by the naturalists of Captain Cook’s expedition, who met with it as far to the north as Nootka Sound. It is only very recently that we have become possessed of reliable information in regard to its breeding and its nest and eggs. Sir John Richardson was informed that it nested in bushes in a manner similar to that of the common robin.

Nuttall and Townsend found it abundant among the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, near the Columbia River, in October. In the winter it became still more numerous, passing the season in that region as well as in more southern localities, associating with the robin. From this bird it may be readily distinguished by the difference of its notes, which are louder, sharper, and delivered with greater rapidity. In the spring, before leaving for their breeding-places, they are described as having a very sweet warble.

On the Columbia River they were not resident, arriving there in October, continuing throughout the winter, and leaving early in May. During their stay they moved through the forest in small flocks, frequenting low trees, and for the most part keeping perfect silence. They were timorous and difficult of approach.

Its habits are said to resemble those of the robin, but in some of them the descriptions given appear to correspond more with those of the Fieldfares and Redwings of Europe. Like those species it is a summer resident of high northern latitudes, affects secluded forests and thickets bordering upon streams, and is found only in unfrequented localities.

Dr. Cooper was of the opinion that a few of these thrushes remained in Washington Territory throughout the summer, as he frequently met with them in the dark spruce forests of that region as late as June and July. He describes the song as consisting of five or six notes in a minor key, and in a scale regularly descending. It was heard continually throughout the summer, among the tops of the trees, but only in the densest forests. Dr. Suckley states that after a fall of snow they would be found along the sandy beaches near the salt water, where they were both abundant and tame. We are indebted to Mr. W. H. Dall for our first authentic knowledge of its nest and eggs. The former measures 6 inches in diameter with a depth of 2½ inches. It has but a very slight depression, apparently not more than half an inch in depth. The original shape of the nest had, however, been somewhat flattened in transportation. The materials of which it was composed were fine dry mosses and lichens impacted together, intermingled with fragments of dry stems of grasses.

A nest of this thrush obtained by Dr. Minor, in Alaska, is a much more finished structure. Its base and periphery are composed of an elaborate basket-work of slender twigs. Within these is an inner nest consisting of an interweaving of fine dry grasses and long gray lichens.

The eggs in size, shape, ground color, and markings are not distinguishable from those of the Turdus musicus of Europe. They measure 1.13 inches in length by .80 in breadth, are of a light blue with a greenish shading, almost exactly similar to the ground color of the T. migratorius. They are very distinctly marked and spotted with a dark umber-brown approaching almost to blackness.

Mr. Dall informs us that the nest found by him was built in a willow bush, about two feet from the ground, and on the top of a large mass of rubbish lodged there by some previous inundation. Other nests of the same species were met with in several places between Fort Yukon and Nulato, always on or near a river-bank and in low and secluded localities.

They arrive at Nulato about May 15, and prefer the vicinity of water, frequenting the banks of small streams in retired places. Mr. Dall states that he has seen the male bird on a prostrate log near the nest, singing with all his might, suddenly cease and run up and down the log for a few minutes, strutting in a singular manner, then stopping and singing again; and keeping up this curious performance. Specimens were received from Sitka, Kodiak, Cook’s Inlet and Admiralty Islands.