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The general characters of this family have already been given on p. 2, as distinguished from the Turdidæ. The relationships are very close, however, and but little violence would be done by making it a subfamily of Turdidæ or even a group of Turdinæ, as was done in the “Birds of North America.”

While the group is very well represented in the Old World, America has but one peculiar genus Sialia, and another Saxicola, represented by a single species, a straggler, perhaps, from Greenland on the one side and Siberia on the other. The diagnostic characters of these are as follows, including Turdus to show the relationships of the three genera:—

Turdus. Tarsi long, exceeding the middle toe; wings reaching to the middle of the tail, which is about four fifths the length of the wings. Bill stout; its upper outline convex toward the base. Second quill shorter than fifth.

Saxicola. Tarsi considerably longer than the middle toe, which reaches nearly to the tip of the tail. Tail short, even; two thirds as long as the lengthened wings, which reach beyond the middle of the tail. Second quill longer than fifth. Bill attenuated; its upper outline concave towards the base.

Sialia. Tarsi short; about equal to the middle toe. Wings reaching beyond the middle of the tail. Bill thickened.

Genus SAXICOLA, Bechstein

Saxicola, Bechstein, Gemeinnützige Naturg. 1802. (Type, S. œnanthe.)

Saxicola œnanthe, Bechst.

18075

Gen. Char. Commissure slightly curved to the well-notched tip. Culmen concave for the basal half, then gently decurving. Gonys straight. Bill slender, attenuated; more than half the length of head. Tail short, broad, even. Legs considerably longer than the head; when outstretched reaching nearly to the tip of tail. Third quill longest; second but little shorter. Claws long, slightly curved; hind toe rather elongated.

As already stated, America possesses but a single member of this group of birds, so well represented in the Old World. The color is bluish-gray, with wings, a stripe through the eye, and the middle of exposed tail-feathers black.

Saxicola œnanthe, Bechst

THE WHEAT-EAR

Motacilla œnanthe, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1758, 186. Saxicola œnanthe, Bechst. “Gemein. Naturg. 1802,” and of European authors.—Holböll, Orn. Grœn. (Paulsen ed.), 1846, 23 (Greenland).—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 220 (Europe); Review, 61.—Jones, Nat. Bermuda, 1859, 28 (Bermuda).—Coues, Pr. A. N. S. 1861, 218 (Labrador).—Reinhardt, Ibis, 1861, 5 (Greenland).—Dall & Bannister (Alaska). Saxicola œnanthoides, Vigors, Zoöl. Blossom, 1839, 19 (N. W. America).—Cassin, Ill. I, 1854, 208, pl. xxxiv (Nova Scotia).

Sp. Char. (Description from European specimen.) Male in spring, forehead, line over the eye, and under parts generally white; the latter tinged with pale yellowish-brown, especially on the breast and throat. A stripe from the bill through, below, and behind the eye, with the wings, upper tail-coverts, bill and feet, black. Tail white, with an abrupt band of black (about .60 of an inch long) at the end, this color extending further up on the middle feather. Rest of upper parts ash-gray; quills and greater coverts slightly edged with whitish. Length, 6.00; wing, 3.45; tail, 2.50; tarsus, 1.05.

Autumnal males are tinged with rusty; the black markings brown. The female in spring is reddish-gray; lores and cheeks brown; the black markings generally brownish, and not well defined. Eggs pale light blue. Nest on ground.

Hab. An Old World species (Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia), abundant in Greenland, found probably as an autumnal migrant in Labrador, Canada, Nova Scotia, Bermuda, etc. Occurs also on Norton Sound, near Behring’s Straits. Very occasional in the Eastern States: Long Island.

Saxicola œnanthe.

This bird appears to be abundant in Norton Sound, from which region Mr. Dall has recently brought specimens in full spring plumage. These are decidedly smaller than birds from Labrador and Greenland, but not distinguishable, and seem to agree precisely with skins from Central Europe.

Habits. The well-known Wheat-ear is entitled to a place in our fauna, not only as an accidental visitor, but also as an occasional resident. Dr. H. R. Storer, of Boston, found them breeding in Labrador in the summer of 1848, and procured specimens of the young birds which were fully identified by Dr. Samuel Cabot as belonging to this species. In the following year Andrew Downs, of Halifax, gave me the specimen described and figured by Mr. Cassin. This was secured late in the summer near Cape Harrison, Labrador, where it had evidently just reared its brood. In 1860 Mr. Elliott Coues obtained another specimen on the 25th of August, at Henley Harbor. It was in company with two others, and was in immature plumage. Its occurrence in considerable numbers on the coast of Labrador is further confirmed by a writer (“W. C.”) in “The Field,” for June 10, 1871, who states that when in that region during the months of May and June he saw a number of “White Ears,” the greater proportion of them being males. He inferred from this that they breed in that country, the apparent scarcity of females being due to their occupation in nesting. Mr. Lawrence has one in his cabinet from Long Island, and the Smithsonian Institution one from Quebec. Specimens have also been obtained in the Bermudas.

Holböll, in his paper on the fauna of Greenland, is of the opinion that the individuals of this species that occur there come from Europe, make their journey across the Atlantic without touching at Iceland, and arrive in South Greenland as early in the season as it does at the former place, the first of May. It reaches Godhaven a month later, at times when all is snowbound and the warmth has not yet released the insects on which it feeds. It is found as far north as the 73d parallel, and even beyond. In September it puts on its winter dress and departs.

Mr. Dall states that several large flocks of this species were seen at Nulato, May 23 and 24, 1868, and a number of specimens obtained. They were said to be abundant on the dry stony hill-tops, but were rare along the river.

The Wheat-ear is one of the most common birds of Europe, and is found, at different seasons, throughout that continent as well as in a large portion of Western Asia. It breeds throughout the British Islands as well as in the whole of Northern Europe and Asia.

Its food is principally worms and insects, the latter of which it takes upon the wing, in the manner of a fly-catcher. The male bird is said to sing prettily, but not loudly, warbling even when on the wing, and hovering over its nest or over its partner. In confinement its song is continued by night as well as by day.

The Wheat-ear begins to make its nest in April, usually concealing it in some deep recess beneath a huge stone, and often far beyond the reach of the arm. Sometimes it is placed in old walls, and is usually large and rudely constructed, made of dried bents, scraps of shreds, feathers, and rubbish collected about the huts, generally containing four pale blue eggs, uniform in color, and without spots, which measure .81 of an inch in length by .69 in breadth.

Genus SIALIA, Swainson

Sialia, Swainson, Zoöl. Jour. III, Sept. 1827, 173. (Type Motacilla sialis, L.)

Sialia sialis.

1289

Gen. Char. Bill short, stout, broader than high at the base, then compressed; slightly notched at tip. Rictus with short bristles. Tarsi not longer than the middle toe. Claws considerably curved. Wings much longer than the tail; the first primary spurious, not one fourth the longest. Tail moderate; slightly forked. Eggs plain blue. Nest in holes.

The species of this genus are all well marked, and adult males are easily distinguishable. In all, blue forms a prominent feature. Three well-marked species are known, with a fourth less distinct. The females are duller in color than the males. The young are spotted and streaked with white.

Synopsis of Species

Common Characters. Rich blue above, duller in the female. Beneath reddish or blue in the male, reddish or light drab in the female. Young with wings and tails only blue, the head and anterior parts of body with numerous whitish spots.

A. Breast reddish, or chestnut.

1. S. sialis. No chestnut on the back; throat reddish; abdomen and crissum white.

Blue of a rich dark purplish shade. Tail about 2.75. Hab. Eastern Province United States, Cuba, and Bermudas … var. sialis.

Blue of a greenish shade. Tail about 3.20. Hab. East Mexico and Guatemala … var. azurea.26

2. S. mexicana. Chestnut, in greater or less amount, on the back; throat blue; abdomen and crissum blue. Hab. West and South Middle Province United States, south to Jalapa, Cordova, and Colima.

B. Breast blue (light drab in ♀).

3. S. arctica. Entirely rich greenish-blue; abdomen white. Hab. Middle Province United States; Fort Franklin, British America.

Sialia sialis, Baird

EASTERN BLUEBIBD

Motacilla sialis, Linn. S. N. 1758, 187 (based on Catesby, I, pl. xlvii). Sialia sialis, Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 222; Rev. 62.—Boardman, Pr. Bost. Soc. 1862, 124 (Calais, Me.; very rare).—Dresser, Ibis, 1865, 465 (Texas, winter).—Samuels, B. N. Eng., 175. Sialia wilsoni, Swainson, Zoöl. Jour. III, 1827, 173.—Cab. Jour. 1858, 120.—Gundlach, Cab. Jour. 1861, 324; Repertorio, 1865, 230.—Jones, Nat. Bermuda, 1859, 28, 66 (resident in Bermuda). Sylvia sialis, Lath.; Ampelis sialis, Nutt.; Erythraca wilsoni, Sw.

Figures: Vieillot, Ois. Am. Sept. II, pl. ci, cii, ciii.—Wils. I, pl. iii.—Aud. Orn. Biog. II, pl. cxiii.—Ib. B. A. II, pl. cxxxiv.—Doughty, Cab. I, pl. xii.

Sp. Char. Entire upper parts, including wings and tail, continuous and uniform azure-blue; the cheeks of a duller tint of the same. Beneath reddish-brown; the abdomen, anal region, and under tail-coverts white. Bill and feet black. Shafts of the quills and tail-feathers black. Female with the blue lighter, and tinged with brown on the head and back. Length, 6.75; wing, 4.00; tail, 2.90.

Young. Males of the year dull brown on head and back; and lesser coverts streaked, except on head, with white. Throat and fore part of breast streaked with white. Tertials edged with brown. Rest of coloration somewhat like adult.

Hab. Eastern United States; west to Fort Laramie, Milk River; north to Lake Winnipeg; resident in Bermuda; Cuba (rare), Gundlach.

A specimen from Guatemala (50,411 ♂, Van Patten) referrible to the var. azurea is undistinguishable in color from North American examples; the wings and tail are longer, however, measuring respectively 4.20 and 3.00.

Sialia sialis.

Habits. The Bluebird is abundant throughout the eastern portion of North America, breeding in nearly every part, from Georgia and Louisiana to the Arctic regions, with only this exception, that near the seaboard its migrations do not extend so far to the north as in the interior. It is very rarely to be met with beyond the Penobscot, although Professor Verrill mentions it as very common in the western part of Maine. It is found throughout the year in the Bermudas, and occasionally in Cuba. The Selkirk Settlement is the most northern locality to which it has been traced. It is not known to occur farther west than the highlands west of the Mississippi.

Through all the Eastern States the Bluebird is one of the most familiar and welcome of the earliest visitors of spring, usually making its appearance as early as the first of March. In mild seasons they come in the latter part of February, long before there is any apparent relaxation of the severity of winter. In 1857, in consequence of the unusual mildness of the season, Bluebirds appeared in large numbers as early as the 15th of February, and remained apparently without suffering any inconvenience, although the weather subsequently became quite severe. In 1869 their first appearance was observed as early as the 28th of January, the earliest period of which I can find any record.

In the Middle States, with every mild winter’s day, the Bluebirds come out from their retreats, and again disappear on the return of severer weather. Later in the season, or early in March, they return and make a permanent stay.

When well treated, as the Bluebirds almost universally are, they return year after year to the same box, coming always in pairs. The marked attentions of the male bird are very striking, and have been noticed by all our writers. He is very jealous of a rival, driving off every intruder of his own species who ventures upon the domain he calls his own. Occasionally the pair suffer great annoyance from vexatious interferences with their domestic arrangements by the house wren, who unceremoniously enters their homestead, despoils it of its carefully selected materials, and departs. At other times the wren will take possession of the premises and barricade the entrance, making the return of its rightful owners impossible.

The song of the Bluebirds is a low warble, soft and agreeable, repeated with great constancy and earnestness, and prolonged until quite late in the season. Just before their departure, late in October, the sprightliness of their song nearly ceases, and only a few plaintive notes are heard instead.

The food of the Bluebird consists principally of the smaller coleopterous insects, also of the larvæ of the smaller lepidoptera. In the early spring they are very busy turning over the dry leaves, examining the trunks and branches of trees, or ransacking posts and fences for the hiding-places of their prey. In the fall their food partakes more of a vegetable character.

The Bluebird selects as a suitable place for its nest a hollow in the decayed trunk of a tree, or boxes prepared for its use. Their early arrival enables them to select their own site. The nest is loosely constructed of soft materials, such as fine grasses, sedges, leaves, hair, feathers, etc. These are rarely so well woven together as to bear removal. The eggs are usually five and sometimes six in number. There are usually three broods in a season. Before the first brood are able to provide for themselves, the female repairs her nest and commences incubation for a second family. The young birds are, however, by no means left to shift for themselves. The male bird now shows himself as devoted a parent as in the earlier spring he had proved himself an attentive mate. He watches over the brood even after the second family appears and claims his attention. We often find him dividing his cares in the latter part of the season with two broods, and at the same time supplying his mate with food, and occasionally taking her place on the nest.

The eggs of the Bluebird are of a uniform pale blue, measuring about .81 of an inch in length by .62 in breadth.

In Guatemala is found a local race differing in its lighter under colors and in the greenish tinting of its blue (S. azurea). The S. sialis is also found in the more open districts of the elevated regions where it is numerous. It is there known as “El azulejo.”

Sialia mexicana, Swains

CALIFORNIA BLUEBIRD

Sialia mexicana, Sw. F. B. Am. II, 1831, 202.—Sclater, P. Z. S. 1856, 293 (Cordova): 1857, 126 (California); 1859, 362 (Xalapa).—Ib. Catal. 1861, 11, No. 66.—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 223; Review, 63.—Cooper & Suckley, P. R. R. XII, II, 1859, 173.—Cooper, Birds Cal. 1, 28. Sialia occidentalis, Towns., Aud.; Sialia cæruleocollis, Vigors.

Figures: Aud. B. A. II, pl. cxxxv.—Ib. Orn. Biog. V, pl. cccxciii.—Vigors, Zoöl. Beechey’s, Voy. 1839, pl. iii.

Sp. Char. Bill slender. Head and neck all round, and upper parts generally bright azure blue. Interscapular regions, sides and fore part of the breast, and sides of the belly, dark reddish-brown. Rest of under parts (with tail-coverts) pale bluish, tinged with gray about the anal region. Female duller above; the back brownish; the blue of the throat replaced by ashy-brown, with a shade of blue. Length, 6.50; wing, 4.25; tail, 2.90.

Young. Tail and wing as in adult; head, neck, back, and breast, dull brown; each feather, except on the crown, streaked centrally with white.

Hab. Western United States, from the Rocky Mountains to Pacific. Not noticed on the Missouri plains, Central British America, or at Cape St. Lucas. Found at Xalapa and Cordova, Mex., Sclater. Popocatapetl (Alpine region), Sumichrast.

As in the others, the colors of this species are much duller in fall and winter. No. 53,319, ♂ (Carson City, Nevada, Feb. 21) differs from others in the following respects: there is hardly any chestnut on the back, there being only just a tinge along each side of the interscapular region; that on the breast is interrupted in the middle, and thrown into a patch on each side of the breast, thus connecting the blue of the throat and abdomen; the blue of the throat is unusually deep.

Habits. This Bluebird belongs to western North America, its proper domain being between the Rocky Mountains and Pacific, from Mexico to Washington Territory. Mr. Nuttall first met with this species among the small rocky prairies of the Columbia. He speaks of its habits as exactly similar to those of the common Bluebird. The male is equally tuneful throughout the breeding-season, and his song is also very similar. Like the common species he is very devoted to his mate, alternately feeding and caressing her and entertaining her with his song. This is a little more varied, tender, and sweet than that of the Eastern species, and differs in its expressions.

Nuttall describes this as an exceedingly shy bird, so much so that he found it very difficult to obtain a sight of it. This he attributes to the great abundance of birds of prey. Afterwards, in the vicinity of the village of Santa Barbara, Mr. Nuttall again saw them in considerable numbers, when they were tame and familiar.

Dr. Cooper states that these Bluebirds seem to prefer the knot-holes of the oaks to the boxes provided for them. He does not confirm Mr. Nuttall’s description of its song, which he regards as neither so loud nor so sweet as that of the Eastern species. He describes it as a curious performance, sounding as if two birds were singing at once and in different keys.

Many of this species remain in Washington Territory during the winter, where Dr. Cooper met with them in December. They associated in flocks, frequented roadsides and fences, and fed upon insects and berries.

Dr. Gambel found this species throughout the Rocky Mountains, and always in company with the Sialia arctica, being by far the more abundant species.

Dr. Kennerly mentions finding this species very abundant during his march up the Rio Grande. Through the months of November, December, and January they were always to be seen in large flocks near small streams.

The Western Bluebird constructs a nest usually of very loose materials, consisting chiefly of fine dry grasses. These are not woven into an elaborate nest, but are simply used to line the hollows in which the eggs are deposited. Near San Francisco Mr. Hepburn found a pair making use of the nest of the Hirundo lunifrons. On another occasion the Bluebirds had not only taken possession of the nest of this swallow, but actually covered up two fresh eggs with a lining of dry grasses, and laid her own above them.

The eggs, usually four in number, are of uniform pale blue of a slightly deeper shade than that of the S. sialis. They measure .87 of an inch in length by .69 in breadth.

Dr. Cooper’s subsequent observations of this species in California enabled him to add to his account of it in his report on the birds of that State. He found it abundant in all the wooded districts, except high in the mountains, and thinks they reside through the summer even in the hot valley of the Rio Grande, where he found them preparing a nest in February. On the coast they are numerous as far north as the 49th parallel. He found a nest under the porch of a dwelling-house at Santa Barbara, showing that, like our Eastern species, they only need a little encouragement to become half domesticated. They raise two broods in a season, the first being hatched early in April.

At Santa Cruz he found them even more confiding than the Eastern species, building their nests even in the noisiest streets. One brood came every day during the grape season, at about noon, to pick up grape-skins thrown out by his door, and was delightfully tame, sitting fearlessly within a few feet of the open window.

In regard to their song Mr. Ridgway states that he did not hear, even during the pairing season, any note approaching in sweetness, or indeed similar to, the joyous spring warble which justly renders our Eastern Bluebird (S. sialis) so universal a favorite.

The two Western species of Sialia, though associating during the winter in the region along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, are seldom seen together during the breeding-season; the S. arctica returning to the higher portions of the thinly wooded desert mountains, while the S. mexicana remains in the lower districts, either among the cottonwoods of the river valleys or among the pines around the foot-hills of the Sierra.

Sialia arctica, Swains

ROCKY MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD

Erythraca (Sialia) arctica, Swains. F. B. A. II, 1831, 209, pl. xxxix. Sialia arctica, Nuttall, Man. II, 1832, 573.—Baird, Birds N. Am. 1858, 224; Rev. 64.—Sclater, Catal. 1861, 11, No. 67.—Dresser, Ibis, 1865, 478. (Texas, winter, very abundant.)—Cooper, Birds Cal. 1, 29. Sialia macroptera, Baird, Stansbury’s Rept. 1852, 314 (larger race with longer wings).

Sp. Char. Greenish azure-blue above and below, brightest above; the belly and under tail-coverts white; the latter tinged with blue at the ends. Female showing blue only on the rump, wings, and tail; a white ring round the eye; the lores and sometimes a narrow front whitish; elsewhere replaced by brown. Length, 6.25; wing, 4.36; tail, 3.00. (1875.)

Young. Male birds are streaked with white, as in S. sialis, on the characteristic ground of the adult.

Hab. Central table-lands of North America, east to mouth of Yellowstone. One individual collected at Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake. Not common on the Pacific slope; the only specimens received coming from Simiahmoo, Fort Crook, and San Diego. Not recorded as found in Mexico. W. Arizona, Coues.

As already stated, the blue of this species is greener, more smalt-like than in sialis. The females are distinguished from those of the other species by the greener blue, entire absence of rufous, and longer wings.

In autumn and winter the blue of the male is much soiled by amber-brown edges to the feathers, this most conspicuous on the breast, where the blue is sometimes almost concealed; the plumage of the female, too, at this season is different from that of spring, the anterior lower parts being soft isabella-color, much less grayish than in spring.

Habits. This Bluebird belongs chiefly to the Central fauna, and occupies a place in the Eastern only by its appearance on its borders. It was first procured by Sir John Richardson, at Fort Franklin, in July, 1825. It is abundant throughout the central table-lands of North America, between the Pacific and the mouth of the Yellowstone, from Great Bear Lake to the lower portions of California. In the latter State it is not common.

Mr. Nuttall met with this species in the early part of June, northwest of Laramie Fork. The female uttered a low complaint when her nest was approached. This was constructed in a hole in a clay cliff. Another was found in the trunk of a decayed cedar. In one of these the young were already hatched. The nest was composed of dried grasses, but in very insignificant quantity. Mr. Nuttall found them much more shy than the common species, and describes them as feeding in very nearly the same manner. He afterwards found a nest of the same species in a cliff of the Sandy River, a branch of the Colorado. Both parents were feeding their brood. The female was very uneasy at his approach, chirping, and at intervals uttering a plaintive cry. He states that the male bird has a more plaintive and monotonous song than that of the common Bluebird, and that it has the same warbling tone and manner. He afterwards observed the same species in the winter, at Fort Vancouver, associating with the Western Bluebird.

Dr. Woodhouse found the Arctic Bluebird quite common in the vicinity of Santa Fé, in New Mexico, where they breed about the houses in boxes put up for them by the inhabitants for the purpose.

Mr. Townsend found this species in the vicinity of the Platte River, near the Black Hills, and also on the banks of the Columbia. They confined themselves to the fences in the neighborhood of settlements, occasionally lighting upon the ground and scratching for minute insects. He describes their song as a delightful warble. Its notes resemble those of the common Bluebird, but are so different as to be easily recognized; they are equally sweet and clear, but have much less power.

Neither Dr. Gambel nor Dr. Heermann found this species in California excepting during the winter, and were of the opinion that none remain there to breed.

Dr. Kennerly observed them at different points among the Rocky Mountains, where they frequented the vicinity of his camp early in the morning, at some times in pairs and at others in flocks of four or five.

Mr. J. K. Lord states that he found this Bluebird very abundant between the Cascades and the Rocky Mountains, where they arrive in June and leave in September. After nesting they assembled in large flocks, and fed on the open plains.

The eggs are of a very light blue, paler than those of the other species. They measure .89 of an inch in length by .66 in breadth.

Mr. Ridgway states that he found the Rocky Mountain Bluebird nesting in Virginia City in June. Its nests were built about the old buildings, and occasionally in the unused excavations about the mines. At Austin he also found it common in July, in similar localities. On the East Humboldt Mountains it was very numerous, especially on the more elevated portions, where it nested among the rocks and, though more rarely, in the deserted excavations of woodpeckers in the stunted piñon and cedar trees. He describes it as generally very shy and difficult to obtain, seldom permitting a very near approach. In its habits it is much less arboreal than either S. mexicana or S. sialis, always preferring the open mountain portions in the higher ranges of the Great Basin.

In regard to its notes Mr. Ridgway says: “The common note of this species would, from its character, be at once recognized as that of a Bluebird. Its autumnal note, however, lacks entirely the peculiar plaintiveness so characteristic of that of our Eastern species, and is much more feeble, consisting of a simple weak chirp. Like the S. mexicana, the S. arctica was also never heard to give utterance to anything resembling the lovely spring warbling of the S. sialis.”