Читать книгу Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology - Robert Weis - Страница 107

Adaptive behavior:Thoughts, feelings, and actions that allow children to develop social, emotional, and behavioral competence over time and meet the changing demands of the environmentAlleles:Alternative forms of a gene that are inherited or arise by mutationAttachment:The affective bond between caregiver and child that serves to protect and reassure the child in times of danger or uncertaintyBasal ganglia:Brain regions located under the cortex; they help to control movement, filter incoming information, relay information to other regions, and regulate attention and emotionsBehavioral epigenetics:A scientific field of study that examines the ways environmental experiences can affect genetic expression and be passed from one generation to the nextBehavioral genetics:An area of scientific study that examines the relationship between genes and behavior; chiefly interested in determining the heritability of traits or disordersBrain stem:An evolutionarily old region of the brain responsible for many basic life-sustaining functions; consists of the medulla, pons, and midbrainCerebellum:A brain region located posteriorly (in the back); chiefly responsible for balance and coordinationCerebral cortex:The outermost layer of the brain, consisting of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobesChromosomes:Threadlike strands of genes organized in 23 pairs in typically developing humansClassical conditioning:A type of learning in which two stimuli are paired together in time, and a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit an automatic, unconditioned responseCognitive development:Changes in a person’s capacity for perception, thought, language, and problem-solvingConcordance:Used by behavioral geneticists to describe the probability that two people will both have a certain characteristic or disorder given that one has the characteristicDevelopmental pathways:Possible courses or trajectories of children’s behavioral, cognitive, or social–emotional development over time, ranging from adaptation to maladaptationDevelopmental psychopathology:A multidisciplinary approach to studying adaptive and maladaptive development across the lifespan. According to this perspective, development is shaped by the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social–cultural factors over timeDevelopmental tasks:Behavioral, cognitive, or social–emotional challenges that children face at each age or developmental levelDiathesis –stress model:A broad theory that posits that a child will exhibit a disorder when she has both (1) an underlying genetic risk for the disorder and (2) an environmental experience or life event that triggers its onsetEcological systems theory:A theory of child development that consists of concentric nested systems, each progressively more distal from the child: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystemEmotional development:The emergence and refinement of a person’s experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of feelingsEmotion regulation:The processes that people use to recognize, label, and control our feelings and our expression of these feelingsEquifinality:Describes the phenomenon in which children with different developmental histories show a similar developmental outcomeGene:Thousands of nucleotides that form part of a chromosome; they are transferred from parent to offspring and influence the characteristics of those offspringGene–environment correlation model:The idea that our environments are partially influenced by our genotypes; there are three types of correlations: (1) passive, (2) evocative, and (3) activeGenotype:The genetic code that we inherit from our parentsGoodness-of-fit:The compatibility of a child’s temperament with the features of his or her environment, especially parenting behaviorHeterotypic continuity:The phenomenon in which symptoms change over time, but their underlying pattern remains the same (e.g., a boy’s ADHD symptoms change from childhood to adulthood, but he still has underlying problems with inhibition)Histones:Proteins found in cells; they act as spools around which DNA winds; they regulate the expression of genes, turning them “on” or “off”Homotypic continuity:The phenomenon in which disorders persist over time relatively unchanged (e.g., a boy with intellectual disability continues to have this disorder as an adult)Internal working model:In attachment theory, a mental representation of a caregiver that helps an individual cope with psychosocial stressLearning theory:A broad explanation for the causes of behavior that relies on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modelingLimbic system:Located deep within the brain, responsible for emotional processing and memory; consists of the amygdala, hippocampus, and several other structuresMaladaptive behaviors:Thoughts, feelings, and actions that interfere with children’s social, emotional, and behavioral competence or do not meet the changing demands of the environmentMolecular genetics:An area of scientific study that examines the relationship between specific genes and the presence or absence of characteristics and disordersMultifinality:Describes the phenomenon in which children with similar early experiences show different social, emotional, and behavioral outcomesNeural plasticity:A term used to describe the brain’s capacity to change its structure or functioning in response to environmental experienceNeurons:Nerve cells; consist of dendrites, a cell body (soma), an axon, and terminal endings; relay information within themselves using electrical signalsNeurotransmitters:Chemical messengers that allow neurons to communicate with each other; examples are dopamine and serotoninNonshared environmental factors:Experiences that differ between siblings (e.g., different age, gender, friends, sports, or hobbies)Operant conditioning:A type of learning in which an action is associated with an environmental consequence, either reinforcement or punishmentParenting types:A four-part classification of parenting behavior based on its degree of responsiveness and demandingness: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, uninvolvedPhenotype:The observable expression of our genetic endowmentProbabilistic epigenesis:A principle of developmental psychopathology; refers to the manner in which genetic, biological, and social–cultural factors interact over time to influence (but not absolutely determine) developmentProtective factors:Influences that buffer the negative effects of risks on children’s development and promote adaptive functioningPunishment:In operant conditioning, an environmental consequence that decreases the likelihood of future behaviorReinforcement:In operant conditioning, an environmental consequence that increases the likelihood of future behaviorResilience:The tendency of some children to develop social, emotional, and behavioral competence despite the presence of multiple risk factorsRisk factors:Influences on development that interfere with the acquisition of competencies or compromise children’s ability to adapt to their environmentsShared environmental factors:Environmental experiences common to siblings (e.g., same parents, house, school)Social cognition:Refers to a person’s capacity to think about social situations and to perceive, interpret, and solve interpersonal problemsSocial learning theory:The idea that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modelingStrange situation:A laboratory-based test of infant–caregiver attachment; can be used to determine attachment securitySynaptogenesis:An increase in the number of neurons and connections between neurons; arises from maturation and experienceTemperament:An inborn tendency to organize and react to behavior in response to environmental stimuli