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1.Steven J. Lambakis, “Reconsidering Asymmetric Warfare,” Joint Forces Quarterly, no. 36 (December 2004): 102.

2.Minority Staff, Putin’s Asymmetric Assault on Democracy in Russia and Europe: Implications for U.S. National Security, report prepared for the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office, January 10, 2018), iv.

3.Olga Oliker, “Unpacking Russia’s New National Security Strategy,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, January 7, 2016, 3.

4.Keir Giles, Moscow Rules: What Drives Russia to Confront the West (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2019), 15.

5.Keir Giles et al., The Russia Challenge (London: Chatham House, June 2015), 21.

6.Brian Wang, “Russia Is Weak and Has a Rapidly Aging and Shrinking Population,” Next Big Future, August 6, 2018.

7.DOD, DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (Washington, DC: Secretary of Defense, April 2018), 22.

8.Oliker, “Unpacking Russia’s New National Security Strategy,” 7.

9.Dmitri Trenin, “The Revival of the Russian Military: How Moscow Reloaded,” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2016: 23–29.

10.Associated Press, “NATO Members Concerned about Russian ‘Military Posturing,’” Stars and Stripes, September 11, 2018.

11.Mark Galeotti, “Here’s the Real Message behind Russia’s Big Far-East Wargame,” Defense One, September 12, 2018.

12.Justin Doubleday, “New Cyber Strategy Etches Out DOD’s More Prominent, Day-to-Day Role,” Inside Defense, September 19, 2018.

13.Lionel Beehner et al., “Analyzing the Russian Way of War,” US Army Modern War Institute, March 20, 2018, 4.

14.Steven Metz, “Strategic Asymmetry,” Military Review (July/August 2001): 23.

15.Joseph S. Nye Jr., “Cyber Power,” Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, May 2010, 5.

16.Rebecca Slayton, “What Is the Cyber Offense-Defense Balance?,” International Security 41, no. 3 (Winter 2016/17): 79.

17.Joseph L. Votel, “Operationalizing the Information Environment,” Cyber Defense Review (Fall 2018): 1.

18.Everett C. Dolman, Pure Strategy: Power and Principle in the Space and Information Age (New York: Frank Cass, 2005), 6.

19.Lukas Milevski, “Asymmetry Is Strategy, Strategy Is Asymmetry,” Joint Force Quarterly, no. 75 (Fourth Quarter, 2014): 79.

20.Roger W. Barnett, Asymmetrical Warfare: Today’s Challenge to U.S. Military Power (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2003), 15.

21.Milevski, “Asymmetry Is Strategy,” 79.

22.Milevski, 79.

23.Dmitry (Dima) Adamsky, “Cross-Domain Coercion: The Current Russian Art of Strategy,” Proliferation Papers no. 54, IFRI Security Studies Center, November 2015, 25.

24.Andreas Jacobs and Guillaume Lasconjarias, “NATO’s Hybrid Flanks: Handling Unconventional Warfare in the South and the East,” in NATO’s Response to Hybrid Threats, ed. Guillaume Lasconjarias and Jeffrey A. Larsen, Forum Paper no. 24 (Rome: NATO Defense College, 2015), 268.

25.Diego A. Ruiz Palmer, “Back to the Future? Russia’s Hybrid Warfare, Revolutions in Military Affairs, and Cold War Comparisons,” in Lasconjarias and Larsen, NATO’s Response to Hybrid Threats, 49.

26.Palmer, 50, 51.

27.“The Russian Federation’s National Security Strategy,” Russian Federation Presidential Edict 683, full-text translation, December 31, 2015, http://www.ieee.es/Galerias/fichero/OtrasPublicaciones/ Internacional/2016/Russian-National-Security-Strategy-31Dec2015.pdf.

28.Mark Galeotti, “Russia’s New National Security Strategy: Familiar Themes, Gaudy Rhetoric,” War on the Rocks, January 4, 2016.

29.Defense Intelligence Agency, “Russia Military Power: Building a Military to Support Great Power Ambitions,” 2017, 17.

30.Roger McDermott, “Russia’s 2015 National Security Strategy,” Eurasia Daily Monitor, January 12, 2016.

31.Oliker, “Unpacking Russia’s New National Security Strategy,” 7.

32.Tracy German, “In with the Old: Russia’s New National Security Strategy,” Defense-in-Depth (blog), King’s College London, January 27, 2016.

33.“Russian Federation’s National Security Strategy,” Presidential Edict 683.

34.German, “In with the Old.”

35.“Russian Federation’s National Security Strategy,” Presidential Edict 683.

36.“Russian Federation’s National Security Strategy.”

37.Chris Miller, “How Russia Survived Sanctions,” Foreign Policy Research Institute, May 14, 2018.

38.Richard Connolly, “Stagnation and Change in the Russian Economy,” Russian Analytical Digest, no. 213 (February 7, 2018): 5.

39.Matt Rosenberg, “Population Decline in Russia,” Thought Co., March 6, 2018, https://www.thoughtco.com/population-decline-in-russia-1435266.

40.Frank Holmes, “Which Has the Bigger Economy: Texas or Russia?,” Great Speculations (blog), Forbes, April 17, 2018.

41.Polina Sinovets and Bettina Renz, “Russia’s 2014 Military Doctrine and Beyond: Threat Perceptions, Capabilities and Ambitions,” in Lasconjarias and Larsen, NATO’s Response to Hybrid Threats, 75.

42.The Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation, Approved by the President, No. Pr.-2976, December 25, 2014, https://www.rusemb.org.uk/press/2029.

43.Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation.

44.Adamsky, “Cross-Domain Coercion,” 31.

45.Thomas Schelling, Arms and Influence (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1966), 71.

46.Schelling, 69–72.

47.Adamsky, “Cross-Domain Coercion,” 33.

48.Brandon Valeriano, Benjamin Jensen, and Ryan C. Maness, Cyber Strategy: The Evolving Character of Power and Coercion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 31.

49.Valeriano, Jensen, and Maness, 35.

50.Binoy Kampmark, “Cyber Warfare between Estonia and Russia,” Contemporary Review (Autumn 2007): 288.

51.“Europe: A Cyber-Riot; Estonia and Russia,” The Economist 383, no. 8528 (May 12, 2007): 42.

52.Rebecca Grant, Victory in Cyberspace, special report, Air Force Association, October 2007, 5.

53.Grant, 7.

54.Merike Kao, “Cyber Attacks on Estonia: Short Synopsis,” Double Shot Security, 2007, 4.

55.“International: Newly Nasty; Cyberwarfare,” The Economist 383, no. 8530 (May 26, 2007): 76.

56.Joshua Davis, “Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe,” Wired, August 21, 2017.

57.Andreas Schmidt, “The Estonian Cyberattacks,” in A Fierce Domain: Conflict in Cyberspace, 1986 to 2012, ed. Jason Healey (Washington, DC: Cyber Conflict Studies Association, 2013), 176–77.

58.Schmidt, 176–77.

59.Eneken Tikk, Kadri Kaska, and Liis Vihul, International Cyber Incidents: Legal Considerations (Tallinn: NATO CCD COE Publications, 2010), 18.

60.Tikk, Kaska, and Vihul, 19.

61.Michael Connell and Sarah Vogler, “Russia’s Approach to Cyber Warfare,” CNA, March 2017, 14.

62.Jose Nazario, “DDoS Attacks: A Summary to Date,” Arbor Networks, May 17, 2007.

63.Iain Thomson, “Russia ‘Hired Botnets’ for Estonia Cyber-War,” Computing United Kingdom, May 31, 2007.

64.Rain Ottis, “Overview of Events,” CCD COE Activation Team, May 15, 2007.

65.Schmidt, “Estonian Cyberattacks,” 181.

66.Davis, “Hackers.”

67.Mark Landler and John Markoff, “Digital Fears after Data Siege in Estonia,” New York Times, May 29, 2017.

68.Tikk, Kaska, and Vihul, International Cyber Incidents, 22.

69.Tikk, Kaska, and Vihul, 23.

70.Patrick Jackson, “The Cyber Raiders Hitting Estonia,” BBC News, May 17, 2007.

71.Charles Clover, “Kremlin-Backed Group behind Estonia Cyber Blitz,” Financial Times, March 11, 2009.

72.Thomson, “Russia ‘Hired Botnets.’”

73.Connell and Vogler, “Russia’s Approach to Cyber Warfare,” 15.

74.Christopher Rhoads, “Cyber Attack Vexes Estonia, Poses Debate,” Wall Street Journal, May 18, 2007.

75.Michael N. Schmitt, Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 58.

76.Schmitt, 58.

77.Schmitt, “Cyber Operations in International Law,” 156.

78.Schmitt, 157.

79.Michael N. Schmitt, ed., Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 382.

80.Tikk, Kaska, and Vihul, International Cyber Incidents, 27.

81.Tikk, Kaska, and Vihul, 27.

82.Paul Cornish et al., On Cyber Warfare (London: Chatham House, November 10, 2010), vii.

83.Cornish et al., vii.

84.East West Institute, “Russia: U.S. Bilateral on Cybersecurity; Critical Terminology Foundations,” April 2011.

85.Gen. James E. Cartwright, USMC, vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, “Joint Terminology for Cyberspace Operations,” memorandum, 2011, 8.

86.Keir Giles, Information Troops: A Russian Cyber Command? (Tallinn: NATO CCD COE Publications, 2011).

87.Roy Allison, “Russia Resurgent? Moscow’s Campaign to Coerce Georgia to Peace,” International Affairs 84, no. 6 (2008): 1151–52.

88.Ariel Cohen and Robert E. Hamilton, “The Russian Military and the Georgia War: Lessons and Implications,” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2011, 1–4.

89.Cohen and Hamilton, 13–18.

90.John Markoff, “Before the Gunfire, Cyberattacks,” New York Times, August 12, 2008.

91.Stephen W. Korns, “Botnets Outmaneuvered,” Armed Forces Journal, January 2009, 26.

92.Steven Adair, “Georgian Attacks: Remember Estonia?,” Calendar (blog), Shadowserver Foundation, August 13, 2008.

93.Adair.

94.Beehner et al., “Analyzing the Russian Way of War,” 38–42.

95.Beehner et al., 44–46.

96.David Smith, “How Russia Harnesses Cyber Warfare,” American Foreign Policy Council, Defense Dossier