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ОглавлениеChapter Two
The Herbal
Agrimony
Scientific name: Agrimonia eupatoria
Also known as church steeples, cocklebur, sticklewort, philanthropos, stickwort, liverwort, common agrimony
Agrimonia eupatoria
Agrimony is a perennial plant; some might say “weed.” Various species of Agrimonia grow throughout the northern hemisphere, including North America, England, Scotland, and China. Agrimonia eupatoria is native to Europe. It grows in sunny fields and waste areas, and in hedgerows and stone walls. The above-ground parts are used medicinally. The roots are typically not.
The Greeks used it. So did the Anglo–Saxons. In the fifteenth century, it was one of the ingredients in “eau de arquebusade,” which was a remedy for treating gunshot wounds on the battlefield. The Meskwaki Indians used the root of the plant of the same genus (Agrimonia gryposepala) as a styptic for nosebleeds.6 Another relative of agrimony, xian he cao (Agrimonia pilosa), has been used in China as a remedy for bleeding and wounds.
Agrimony became popular as a medicinal plant for two reasons. The first is the tannins. Tannins are astringent, meaning they tighten or constrict skin. Agrimony also contains silica. Not until the late twentieth century did pharmaceutical companies began using fine silica on wound and burn dressings to heal these wounds more quickly. The silica in agrimony, however, has been used to treat wounds for centuries.
What is it good for?
Much of what we know about agrimony is anecdotal. The number of studies conducted regarding its safety and efficacy can be counted on one hand. It does contain catechin tannins, an astringent. Commission E recommends it for several uses, both topical and internal. If you’re looking for scientific research to tell you agrimony is safe and effective, however, you’re going to have to wait because it’s just not there right now. Traditional use, however, recommends it for the following:
Sore throats. We have a sound oral tradition through several cultures that says agrimony is good for sore throats and laryngitis. Used as a gargle, it can help take down swelling and relieve pain.7 It also contains flavonoids and Vitamin C. Commission E recommends it for oral and pharyngeal inflammation.
Skin Injury or inflammation. Commission E recommends it for topical use. It can aid in the healing of wounds and bruises, and because of its astringent properties, it may help stop bleeding. Because of the silica and tannins in agrimony, it can be particularly useful for scrapes and wounds that tend to weep. Some preliminary research suggests that it may also be mildly antiseptic and may help the body fight bacteria, viruses, and fungi.8
Muscle aches. Anecdotal evidence suggests that agrimony is good for muscle aches when used in a hot bath. If you have dry or sensitive skin, however, the tannins in agrimony may aggravate that problem.
How do you use it?
Infusion (taken internally for sore throat). Infusion brings out the best in agrimony.9 Infuse one teaspoon of the dried leaves, stems, or flowers in a cup (8 ounces) of hot water and let it steep for 5 to 15 minutes. Infusions can be drunk as tea or used as a gargle or rinse for sore throats or mouth wounds.
Decoction (for topical use and as a gargle). Prepare a very strong decoction and allow the mixture to cool. Soak a compress in it and apply it to the affected area several times a day. For a sore throat or laryngitis, gargle and spit the decoction up to three times a day. A decoction gargle can also be used for mouth injuries. Rinse and spit; don’t swallow.
Tincture. Tinctures are possible but work somewhat less well than infusions and decoctions.
Ointment (for wounds). See method two for creams and salves in Chapter 3 for instructions on how to make an ointment from an infusion or decoction.
Dosage: How much do you use?
No scientific information is available about how much agrimony is safe. A traditional dosage is
3 g of the herb daily used internally
One cup of tea (1 teaspoon of the herb, brewed approximately 5–10 minutes) at a time, no more than three times per day
¼–½ teaspoon of the tincture, three times per day.
What should you be aware of before using it?
We don’t know much about the potential risks of agrimony. It hasn’t been studied much at all.
These are the precautions we do know about (or at least suspect):
If you can’t insure the purity of your ingredients and the sterility of your procedures, don’t use a homemade ointment on an open wound.
Agrimony is high in tannins. No high-tannin herb should be taken internally over the long term (more than a few months).10
Don’t take it internally if you are also taking butterbur.
Don’t take it internally it if you are constipated. Don’t use large doses internally because they can lead to constipation.
Agrimony taken internally can affect blood sugar levels. If you are diabetic, check with your doctor before taking agrimony internally. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with herbs known or suspected to affect blood sugar levels. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
If you are taking a diuretic (including some blood pressure medicines) check with your doctor before taking agrimony internally.
If you are prone to high blood pressure, check with your doctor before taking agrimony internally, as agrimony can raise blood pressure, especially if you take it in high doses.11
Be careful about sun exposure after using agrimony internally. Sun sensitivity reactions have been reported.12
No scientific information is available about how well agrimony is tolerated topically.
Note that though agrimony is sometimes known as “cocklebur,” it is not the common cocklebur found throughout North America.
Also, be aware that the Chinese agrimony, xian he cao (Agrimonia pilosa), and Agrimonia eupatoria have different properties and are not interchangeable.
Aloe Vera
Scientific name: Aloe vera, Aloe vulgaris, or Aloe barbadensis
Also known as Barbados or Curaçao aloes
Aloe Vera
The Aloe genus contains at least 324 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees.13 The most commonly used medicinal aloe is Aloe vera, and it is the one we’ll be referring to here. Aloe vera is a succulent, meaning that it is a plant that stores water in fleshy leaves or stems. It grows wild in Africa and Madagascar, but because of its medicinal and decorative properties, it is now a common houseplant throughout the world. It also grows perennially outdoors in the frost-free parts of Florida, Texas, and Hawaii. Aloe leaves contain a clear gel that can be squeezed or scraped from the outer skin. It is this gel that is used medicinally.
For centuries. aloe gel has been used for burns and minor wounds. We have evidence of its use dating back to before the first century. Alexander the Great is rumored to have conquered Madagascar so his army would have an adequate supply of aloe to treat wounds. Cleopatra used it as part of her beauty regimen. Hippocrates and Arab physicians also used it. The Egyptians called aloe the “Plant of Immortality” though not because of its health benefits but because it can live for long periods of time bare-rooted, without soil.14 In both Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine it is used, among other remedies, as a treatment for eczema.15 In traditional Arab medicine, it’s used for wound healing.16
What is it good for?
Minor burns. Aloe is best for first degree burns. It may also be used on small, minor second degree burns. This use has centuries of folk medicine behind it. In fact, the use of aloe on burns has good recognition not just in the popular culture, but also in segments of Western mainstream medicine as well. Animal studies show great advantage to using aloe on burns of all severities.17 Clinical studies show that burns can heal in about two-thirds the time when treated with aloe.18
Minor wounds. Aloe can also be used on cuts, scrapes, and other minor wounds and skin irritations. The traditional evidence for using aloe to treat minor wounds is also strong. At the very least, aloe provides a protective barrier over the wound. That much is fairly universally agreed upon.19 The gel also contains several active ingredients that have been isolated in the laboratory: pain relievers, anti-inflammatories, and ingredients that relieve itching and increase blood flow to an injured area. Some research suggests that it may also have antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral properties.20 Clinical trials have been mostly but not completely positive.21 In humans, aloe has been shown to speed healing from deep scrapes, canker sores, frostbite, and flash burns of the conjunctiva.22 One study of aloe on surgical wounds, however, showed that it may actually slow wound healing time for deep or major wounds.23 But in general the evidence for benefit in treating superficial wounds is better than for most herbal remedies.
Plantar warts. Plantar warts, warts on the soles of the feet, may respond to aloe compresses. This use is not backed by research and is mainly anecdotal, but if aloe does indeed have antiviral and immune stimulating properties, those properties may help in the elimination of plantar warts.
Major wounds. Studies using aloe for more major wounds, for example post surgical wounds, have been less impressive, showing that aloe actually slowed wound healing over a placebo.24 Similarly, healing from dermabrasion25 is slowed by aloe. Aloe should be used only for minor wounds.
How do you use it?
Fresh gel. Aloe is one herb that’s easy to grow and is best when used fresh. If you keep an aloe plant on hand, you can remove a leaf, split it open, and either squeeze or scrape out the gel, or you can simply apply the entire split leaf directly to burns or wounds like a poultice.
Commercially processed gel. If you don’t have a plant or prefer to keep gel on hand, make sure it is processed well. Improperly processed aloe can lose its medicinal effects. The International Aloe Science Council provides a seal of certification for products that have followed proper processing procedures.26 To treat a burn, immediately cool the effected area with cool water. After the burn is thoroughly cooled, apply the aloe gel topically.
Baths. For sunburn, you can add 1–2 cups of aloe juice to a lukewarm bath.
Ointments. If you apply an aloe ointment to sunburn, make sure that ointment does not contain petroleum jelly, benzocaine, lidocaine, or butter, because these can make a sunburn worse.
Compress. For warts, apply a pea-sized amount of the gel to a compress and completely cover the wart with it. Change the compress daily.
Dosage: How much do you use?
Aloe is typically tolerated very well when used externally. If you use commercially prepared aloe, make sure that it’s pure (98% or more aloe). When using aloe on sunburns, you may wish to use a diluted product. Make sure that the dilution is no more than 80%, with at least 20% of the product being aloe. For burns or scrapes, apply the aloe two to five times per day.
What should you be aware of before using it?
If a product says simply “aloe,” it could be aloe vera, or it could be one of several other species of aloe. Evidence is coming in that some of the other species are carcinogenic (cause cancer).27 Be aware of what kind of aloe you are using.
Topical use. Don’t use aloe topically if you are allergic to onions or garlic. If you’ve never used aloe before, or if you’re using aloe from a different plant, try a little bit on a small area. If you develop an irritation, discontinue use.
If you have any of the following symptoms after using aloe, call poison control or your doctor: throat swelling or breathing difficulty, severe burning or pain in the throat, nose, eyes, ears, lips, or tongue, severe abdominal pain or vomiting, severe skin irritation or rash.
Internal use. Don’t use aloe internally without medical supervision. Though aloe vera has been used internally for centuries, sometimes by people who proclaim near-miraculous properties to it, modern research casts doubts on its safety. Aloe for internal use is not usually standardized and is sometimes mislabeled. The dose that works fine for you this time might be very different from the dose you get next time from the same product.
Aloe can be a violent purge. As a result, it can affect electrolyte levels.
It can also affect blood sugar, perhaps dangerously so if you are hypoglycemic, diabetic, or on blood sugar medication. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with herbs known or suspected to affect blood sugar levels. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
If it is taken orally for diarrhea for more than a week, it can cause dependency. For these reasons, the FDA has banned the use of aloe in over-the-counter laxatives,28 and it recommends that aloe not be taken internally.29 If you should choose to ignore these recommendations, be sure you consult with a trained herbalist and learn about contraindications and interactions, for they are many.
Injected use. Never use injected aloe intravenously or intramuscularly. Four cases of death have been associated with Aloe vera injections.30
Be aware that though the African plant aloe and the North American plant agave, sometimes known as “American aloe,” may look similar but they are very different in their medical uses. Also the word Aloes, in Latin Lignum Aloes, used in the Bible refers to a completely different plant, the Aquilaria agallocha.
Andrographis
Scientific name: Andrographis paniculata
Also known as chiretta, heart-thread lotus leaf, and kariyat, kalmegh, maha-tita, chuan xin lian, yi jian xi, and lan he lian, chyun sam ling, senshinren
Andrographis, Andrographis paniculata
Credit: Courtesy of Teo Siyang
Andrographis is a small annual shrub native to tropical Asia. The leaves and roots are used medicinally. It is very bitter.
Andrographis is sometimes called “Indian echinacea” for its use in supporting the immune system. It has been a part of Chinese and South Asian medicine for centuries. In Chinese medicine, andrographis is believed to dispel heat and it is used for conditions involving fever, inflammation, and the formation of pus.31 In Indian medicine, it was credited with stopping the 1919 Indian flu epidemic. Combined with eleuthero, andrographis is now a major part of one of the most popular herb blends in Sweden (Kan Jang®). It is used there to treat colds and for immune support during the cold and flu season.
What is it good for?
Colds and flu. The active ingredient in andrographis is andrographolides, which are believed to have immune-stimulating, anti-inflammatory properties.32 Several double-blind studies have shown the effectiveness of andrographis in reducing symptoms of the common cold.33 Improvement is shown in fever, headache, muscle aches, throat symptoms, cough, nasal symptoms, general malaise, and eye symptoms.34 It is more effective than placebo in treating upper respiratory tract infections.35 It helps treat sinusitis.36 It inhibits streptococcus bacteria in vitro.37 According to Chinese medical tradition, it is better for flu symptoms (with fever) than for cold symptoms (with just congestion and no fever).
Immune support. The hype says that andrographis stimulates the immune system38 and reduces inflammation.39 Though it may indeed do so, we don’t have the clinical studies that prove that it does. What we have is one small-scale study of young adults which showed that andrographis cut the risk of catching a cold in half.40
How do you use it?
Andrographis is taken internally, either as dried herb in a capsule or as a standardized extract.
Dosage: How much do you use?
We don’t know exactly how much andrographis is safe, but these are typical doses:
For capsules containing dried herb, take 500–3,000 mg, three times per day.41
For standardized extracts, clinical trials have typically used 100 mg of a standardized extract taken two times per day to treat or prevent the common cold.42
What should you be aware of before using it?
Some people get an upset stomach when taking andrographis. If this happens to you, try reducing the dose or taking it with meals.
It may also aggravate ulcers or heartburn.
Andrographis has no known drug interactions. The drug, however, is new enough to Western medicine that it may have interactions we don’t yet know about.
Anise
Scientific name: Pimpinella anisum
Also known as anise, aniseed, jintan, sweet cumin
Pimpinella anisum
Anise originally grew only in the Near East. As anise became popular as a spice, it became more widely cultivated. The ripe syncarp (fruit) is the part used medicinally. The syncarp is typically referred to as “anise seed,” though it is not strictly a seed. It’s the essential oil from this seed/syncarp that contains the medicinal properties.
Pimpinella anisum is the same anise that is used in foods, especially candy and bakery goods, throughout Europe and the Middle East. It is also a flavoring in ouzo and root beer. Its medicinal use goes back to both ancient Rome and ancient Egypt. Hippocrates used it as a cough remedy. The ancient Chinese used it for digestive problems. In other cultures, it has been used, with varying degrees of success, for everything from colic, to cancer, to warding off the evil eye.
What is it good for?
Coughs. Anise is used for the treatment of coughs. The Cherokee Indians used an infusion in hot water as a respiratory aid for catarrh.43 Commission E recommends it for “catarrhs of the respiratory tract.” The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory mentions an expectorant effect. The PDR for Herbal Medicine describes it as “antibacterial,” though this effect appears to be mild. Use as a cough remedy has ample anecdotal evidence, but no known clinical trials support it. Laboratory research, however, is hopeful. One study suggests that an ingredient in the oil increases the movement of the cilia in the bronchial passages of animals. Both infusion and tincture of anise also helped dilate the bronchial passages of pigs.44 If the same is true in humans, anise might have a measurable expectorant effect.45
Antimicrobial. Preliminary test-tube studies show that the essential oil of anise seed may have an anti-fungal effect.46 Anise may also have a very mild antibacterial effect, but studies seem to show that it’s not significant.47
Flatulence. The Modern Herbal and Eclectic School both recommended it for flatulence and gas pains. Though use as a carminative is widespread and common, this use has no known scientific backing.
How do you use it?
The essential oil seems to be the part of the plant that has the most active ingredients. Some herbalists, however, prefer to use the whole seed, both for convenience’s sake and to avoid the dangers of overdosing on the essential oil. If you choose to use the whole seed, grind it fresh just prior to use.
Infusion. Infusion brings out the best in anise.48 Gently crush the seed just before infusing to release the volatile oils. Boil one cup of water, let it cool until it drops back off the boil, and then pour it over 1–2 teaspoonfuls of the seeds. Let it stand covered for 5 to 10 minutes.49 Avoid boiling anise, as doing so tends to boil off the essential oils. Infusions can be used either topically or internally.
Tincture. The 1928 U.S. Dispensatory notes that anise’s essential oils are dissolved well by alcohol, so tinctures are also a possibility for topical or internal use. Anise-flavored liqueurs are available and have been used for many of the same purposes as anise tea.
Essential oil. When using the essential oil externally, dilute it to no more than 10% in a carrier oil. Be very careful when using the essential oil internally. Dilute it well and don’t exceed the recommended dosage.
Dosage: How much do you use?
Seed: A typical dosage is three g of seeds daily.50
Essential oil: You can take internally up to 0.3 g (12 drops) of the essential oil per day.51 The recommended single dose is .1 g or roughly four drops of the oil.52
Infusions: If you are using infusions, you can drink one cup containing up to 1 g of seeds, up to three times daily.53
What should you be aware of before using it?
The FDA has anise on its list of “substances generally recognized as safe” for use as a spice.54 That does not necessarily mean, however, that it is safe in large medicinal doses. In Germany and Canada, it is recognized as an over-the-counter drug.
The 1970s saw some concern that anise oil might be carcinogenic, but evidence was never found to support that claim.55
Some people are allergic to anise. If you are taking anise for the first time, take appropriate precautions. If you are allergic to any other member of the Umbelliferae family (which includes caraway, carrot, celery, dill, and parsley), be especially cautious the first time using anise.
Be cautious when using the essential oil. Too much can be toxic.56 It can cause nausea and vomiting.
Anise essential oil has been shown to influence glucose absorption in rats.57 If you have blood sugar issues, check with your doctor before using anise seed oil internally. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with herbs known or suspected to affect blood sugar levels. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Anise contains anethole, an active estrogenic agent. Traditionally, it was used to promote menstruation and facilitate birth. Avoid medicinal quantities of anise while pregnant.58 Be cautious about using it if you are prone to hormone imbalances or estrogen-induced migraines.
Theoretically, anise may increase the risk of bruising or bleeding, though this effect has not been observed in clinical studies. If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking anise and discontinue use. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs that may increase the risk of bleeding. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
The Chinese star anise (Chinese name: ba-jiao, scientific name: Illicium verum) has a similar flavor, but it is unrelated and has different medicinal effects. Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum) is toxic and used only for incense.59
Arnica
Scientific name: Arnica montana
Also known as mountain arnica, mountain tobacco, leopard’s bane, wolfsbane, European arnica, Arnica flos (dried flower head)
Arnica, Arnica montana
Courtesy of Barbara Studer
The most commonly used medicinal species of arnica (A. montana) is native to the mountains of Europe, though several arnica species grow in the Americas as well. Arnica chamissonis, which has some of the same properties as Arnica montana, is native to the western United States. The flowers are the most commonly used part of the plant, though the rhizomes (underground stems) are used on rare occasion.60
We can trace the use of arnica flowers as medicine back to the Middle Ages when they were used in Europe for sprains and bruises. In modern times, gels and ointments containing arnica are very popular in Europe, especially Germany, for treating bruises. Even some American plastic surgeons are beginning to use arnica for postoperative pain and swelling.61
What is it good for?
Bruises. Arnica is best known as a treatment for swelling due to bruising, contusions, posttraumatic edema, joint injuries, fractures, and sprains. In North America, Native American tribes used New-World species for similar maladies. The Catawba used it for back pain; the Thompson for swellings, bruises and cuts; and the Shuswap for sore eyes.62 Doctors of the Eclectic School recommended it for “muscular soreness and pain from strain or overexertion” and for “bruised feeling.” They also recommended it for bruises from blows and falls, and for strains. In short, the traditional evidence for effectiveness is strong.
From a clinical standpoint, we are now beginning to learn why arnica seems to work on bruises. Arnica contains a mild anesthetic.63 It also contains thymol, an antiseptic. Perhaps most importantly, it contains helenalin, an anti-inflammatory agent. Helenalin works using a different mechanism from aspirin or other anti-inflammatories in the Western pharmacopeia. Helenalin’s exact mechanism is still not understood, but the literature contains consensus that it does work. Clinical tests of non-homeopathic arnica are sparse, however. Two studies have showed some improvement in postoperative bruising in facelift patients who used arnica cream,64 the benefit being mainly reduction in swelling, not reduction in the “black and blue” discoloration.65 Another cosmetic surgery study, however, showed no improvement.66
Osteoarthritis. One study showed that arnica helped with pain and stiffness due to osteoarthritis of the knee.67 Another study found arnica tincture to be comparable to topical ibuprofen in treating osteoarthritis pain in the hands.68
Mouth injuries. A study in the mid-1980s used arnica to treat individuals recovering from removal of impacted wisdom teeth. The study found that patients taking arnica suffered more pain than those who received antibiotics and those receiving a placebo.69 Using arnica as a mouth rinse increases the chances of swallowing it, something that is ill-advised. Moreover, arnica can irritate mucous membranes.
How do you use it?
Don’t take arnica internally. It can be fatal. When making arnica preparations, follow safe handling practices: Keep it away from foodstuffs. Wear a mask and gloves when crushing it or handling crushed flowers. Be careful that anything that may have a residue on it (pots, strainers, spoons, etc.) doesn’t come in contact with food. Label all preparations as “external use only.”
Tincture. Studies show that the active ingredients in arnica reach the affected tissue when applied by means of a tincture.70 You can make a tincture by pouring a pint of 70% alcohol over 50 g (two ounces) of freshly picked flowers or half that quantity of dried flowers. Let it stand for at least a week in a warm place.71 For use on a compress, dilute the tincture. The strongest the diluted tincture should be is 1 part tincture to 5 parts water. If you have sensitive skin, dilute it more, as much as 1:10. The tincture and water mixture can also be used for hand and foot soaks.
Salves and creams. You can make your own cream or ointment. Make the infused oil by the hot infusion method, heating one ounce of flowers to one ounce of oil for several hours.72 Strain and use the oil to make a salve (using method one, four, or five for creams and salves; see Chapter 3). Apply salves every 3–4 hours.73
Commercially produced arnica creams are available but are more widely available in Europe than North America. Be aware that some arnica creams are not herbal creams but rather homeopathic creams made with a very different method from herbal preparations.
Infusions. Use 2 g of arnica to ½ cup of water.74 Use it as a soak or a compress.
Dosage: How much do you use?
According to Commission E, ointments should not contain more than 15% arnica oil or 20–25% arnica tincture. Dilute the tincture no less than 1:5 (tincture to water). Stronger formulations can irritate skin.
What should you be aware of before using it?
Don’t use arnica on open wounds or broken skin. Arnica can suppress the mechanism by which the body fights off infection. Because of helenalin’s unique anti-inflammatory properties, arnica is best used on injuries that involve swelling or inflammation, but that offer little or no chance of infection.
Internal use of arnica is hazardous. Because helenalin interacts with the body’s enzyme systems,75 even small doses can be dangerous, causing elevated blood pressure, shortness of breath, and heart damage. An overdose can be fatal. The FDA classes arnica as an unsafe herb.76 Though internal use of arnica was not unheard of in less-knowledgeable times, almost everyone today agrees that the dangers far outweigh the benefits. Topical use of arnica does not appear to have the same toxic effects as internal use, though research into the hazardous effects of topical use is not as comprehensive as we would like.
Don’t use arnica near eyes, nose, or mouth.
Arnica can cause allergic dermatitis in some people.77 The likelihood of your reacting to arnica depends of a number of factors: how much helenalin is in the product, what other ingredients are used and whether they enhance or mitigate the effect of the helenalin, how sensitive your skin is, and whether you are allergic to the Compositae family of plants (a common allergy to the family that contains ragweed). If you have other contact allergies, try a small amount of arnica on a healthy patch of skin before using it more extensively. Limit the amount of arnica you use to recommended amounts, or less than recommended amounts if you have sensitive skin. Avoid long-term use. If the area seems to be getting redder and more swollen, discontinue use.78
Don’t use arnica during pregnancy.
Arnica is one of the herbs used in homeopathic medicine. Because homeopathy dilutes its ingredients (using its own distinctive process), homeopathic arnica may be safe for internal use. The effectiveness of homeopathic arnica, however, is still in dispute. It is widely used, perhaps more so than herbal arnica. Yet several studies show homeopathic arnica cream to be no more effective than placebo for bruising.79 For our purposes here, suffice it to say that if you use homeopathic arnica, you will be getting a different dose of arnica than if you use an herbal preparation. Therefore, these assessments and warnings do not necessarily apply.
Though the American arnica, Arnica chamissonis, has some of the same properties as Arnica montana, it has not been nearly as extensively tested. We don’t know much about its properties or dangers.
Ashwagandha
Scientific name: Withania somnifera
Also known as winter cherry, varaha karni, Indian ginseng, and ajagandha
Withania somnifera
Ashwagandha is a member of the Solanaceae or nightshade family. Various species of the plant can be found in India, Africa, and the Mediterranean. The root is the most common medicinal part, though the berries are used in India and North Africa to coagulate milk to make cheese.
Conventional wisdom has it that ashwagandha gets its name because its roots smell like a horse. (Ashwa means “horse” and gandha “odor.”) The use of ashwagandha goes back so far that we can’t begin to guess when it was first used. For more than 2000 years, it has been used as a part of the Ayurvedic system of natural healing in India. Though the tradition is long, it has been mostly limited to one branch of Indian medicine. The effects have been documented, but they are linked more to ashwagandha in combination with other herbs than to ashwagandha alone. Moreover, the toxic effects of ashwagandha are not well known. Some scientists insist that the leaves are toxic. Others cite their long usage, supposedly without ill effects. Nobody seems to be offering hard evidence either way. If ashwagandha does what the Ayurvedic practitioners and herb salespeople says it does, it could be a very valuable herb indeed. Right now, however, we can’t say for sure that the reality is as strong as the reputation.
What is it good for?
Endurance and energy. Most of the research done on ashwagandha has been done in India. Animal and test-tube studies abound, as do studies that mix ashwagandha with other traditional ingredients. Well-designed, focused human studies, however, are scarce.80 Studies with rats show that the rats can swim farther in cold water when given ashwagandha. Rats stressed by exercise showed less stress response to that exercise as well.81 However, we don’t really understand why ashwagandha should boost endurance in rats, and no comparable studies have been done with people.82 We do know that rats fed ashwagandha over the course of four weeks had heavier livers than the controls, something researchers attributed to increased glycogen.83 We also know that ashwagandha contains many steroids and glucocorticoids known to enhance liver glycogen stores, which in turn may have an impact on endurance.
As for clinical studies, however, we only have a couple. A study in which Indian children given powdered ashwagandha in milk for sixty days showed slight increases in the following areas: hemoglobin, packed cell volume, mean corpuscular volume, serum iron, body weight, and hand grip. The children also showed significant increases in mean corpuscular hemoglobin and total proteins.84 In another study 101 normal healthy men, 50–59 years old, were given three grams per day of the powder for one year. All subjects showed significantly increased hemoglobin and red blood cell count and decreased SED rate (a marker of inflammation in the body).85 In short, research has given us several pieces that might indicate that ashwagandha has some value as an energy tonic, but we can’t yet say that it increases energy or endurance in humans.
Adaptogen. Western herbalists have taken to calling ashwagandha “Ayurvedic ginseng” because like ginseng, its primary use is as an energy tonic.86 Ashwagandha is especially useful for tiredness and burnout that has a sexual consequence (impotence, lack of libido). At least two animal studies seem to suggest that ashwagandha may have anti-inflammatory properties.87 The root powder given to rats that had been made to swim to exhaustion caused a decrease in the waste products a body normally puts out when it is stressed.88 Some studies suggest that ashwagandha causes a mild depression of the central nervous system—an effect that would explain its use as an anti-anxiety or anti-burnout agent. An alkaloid in ashwagandha has been shown to lower blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate in dogs.89 But other studies didn’t find any effect on the central nervous system.90 One study suggests that it might have an antioxidant effect on the brain (again in rats).91 Compounds isolated from ashwagandha had a beneficial effect on rat immune systems and boosted their memory and ability to learn.92 All of these findings are hopeful, but again, a rat is not a person, and an ingredient in an herb is not the whole herb. Whether ashwagandha is useful as an adaptogenic in humans has yet to be demonstrated.
Arthritis. Studies with rats show that ashwagandha may be beneficial for treating arthritis.93 Both paw swelling and degenerative changes were reduced in rats with induced arthritis when the rats were given ashwagandha root powder for fifteen days.94 Only one human study is available and it used ashwagandha in conjunction with zinc and two other herbs.95 The study, which involved 42 patients with osteoarthritis, found significant reduction of pain and disability.
How do you use it?
Ashwagandha is commonly used in powdered form, which is made from the root. Commercially prepared powders, both in and out of capsules are available. Buy from a reputable company and follow label directions. Take it with a meal and/or a full glass of water.
Dosage: How much do you use?
Commercial preparations: Capsules are often standardized to 2–5 mg with anolides, one of the active ingredients. For these standardized capsules, a dose of 150–300 mg is typical.
Root powder: For the root powder, 2–3 g taken three times a day (up to 9 g per day) is a typical Ayurvedic dose.96 Western herbalists most commonly recommend somewhat less, roughly 3–6 g per day97 Experiments on rats suggests that a single dose (25 or 50 mg/kg taken orally) taken an hour before anticipated stress may help ameliorate some of the physical consequences of that stress.98
What should you be aware of before using it?
We know little or nothing about the consequences of long-term use.
Many members of the nightshade family are toxic. Ashwagandha roots have been used for thousands of years. If the dangers were obvious, they would have received much wider attention than they have. That, however, does not guarantee that it is completely safe.
The plant can make some people drowsy, so you should be cautious about driving and engaging in dangerous activities that require quick reaction time until you figure out how much this particular side effect affects you. Taking ashwagandha with other herbs with a sedative effect can compound the sedative effect. Be cautious about mixing it with melatonin or herbs that make you drowsy. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
If you have thyroid problems, check with your doctor before using ashwagandha. Thyrotoxicosis has been reported in humans and increased blood levels of thyroid hormones have been reported in animals.99
If you have immune system issues, discuss ashwagandha with your doctor before taking it. Studies show that it may have an immunosuppressant effect.100
There is some question as to whether it is safe to use ashwagandha during pregnancy. The Western literature says no. Ayurvedic practitioners have used it as a pregnancy tonic for years. However, one of its other traditional uses is as an abortifacient. Prudence dictates that you not use it during pregnancy, at least not without professional supervision.
One article suggests that it causes kidney lesion in rats.101
One study showed that high levels of ashwagandha (3000 mg/kg per day for a week) hampered sexual desire and function in male rats.102 But it has a reputation for having the opposite effect in humans.
Another study demonstrated that it’s possible to kill a rat if you give it enough ashwagandha.103 More is not better. Stay within recommended doses.
Ashwagandha contains some nicotine. If you have a problem with cigarette addiction, you may want to be a bit cautious about using it.
Astragalus
Scientific name: Astragalus membranaceus
Also known as huang-qi or huang-qui, milk vetch, tragacanth, goat’s horn, goat’s thorn, green dragon, gum dragon, hog gum, locoweed
Astragalus, Astragalus membranaceus
Courtesy of Stanislva Doronenko
Astragalus is a hairy-stemmed perennial plant, mainly grown in China. It is, however, becoming ever more common in the West. It is a relative of licorice. The dried root is used medicinally.
The Chinese have been using astragalus for more than a thousand years. It is used mainly as a tonic to enhance and balance vital energy, especially among the elderly. It is also used topically as a vasodilator to speed healing. Though use in the Western world dates back to the 1800s when it was included in various tonics, only in the last twenty-five years or so has astragalus become common. What boosted astragalus sales the most was when herb sellers began touting its alleged anti-cancer properties. The media picked up the story, and astragalus became widely available. Since then it has come to be used most commonly to help ward off viral and bacterial infections. Tests of the herb’s effectiveness and safety, however, are also fairly new. The herb, nonetheless, shows great promise. Once Westerners become more familiar and comfortable with its use, it may join echinacea and vitamin C as common treatment for colds and flu.
What is it good for?
Immune support. The most common use for astragalus in the West is as a cold-and flu fighter. Surprisingly, the clinical evidence for that use is slim. What we do know is this: Extracts contain COX and LOX inhibitors, suggesting that astragalus may have anti-inflammatory properties.104 In the laboratory, extracts of the drug were able to protect liver cells from environmental toxins.105 Astragalus appears to stimulate the production of interferon, a protein produced by the body to hamper the ability of viruses to multiply.106 It may also stimulate the body’s killer cells and white blood cells, both of which protect the body against invading organisms.107 Note, however, the qualifiers: it may stimulate interferon and it may stimulate killer cells. These studies have been of extracts of the herb, which may or may not behave like the whole herb. So far, all the studies have been preliminary and unconfirmed. Some limited human research has examined the use of astragalus for viral infections. In a clinical study, 1,000 people experienced fewer colds and less severe colds while taking astragalus.108 However, most human studies have been small, poorly designed, and unduplicated.109
Energy and endurance. The anecdotal evidence for this use is strong in China, where astragalus is used especially by young people as a tonic to promote muscle growth and increase stamina.110 Animal tests show preliminary support for this use. Mice that were fed astragalus could swim longer in cold water.111 However, clinical studies have yet to show this effect in healthy adults. A couple of studies have shown that it can improve heart function in patients with heart disease.112 Another study suggests that it can improve breathing in patients with asthma.113 To date, however, we have no evidence that it can improve circulation, respiration, energy levels, or endurance in healthy athletes.
How do you use it?
Decoctions work best for astragalus. Use 1 teaspoonful of the root per cup of water, bring to boil and simmer for 10–15 minutes.114
Commercially prepared capsules containing extracts of the roots are available. Good ones are standardized to 0.5% glucosides and 70% polysaccharides.
Tinctures tend not to work very well for astragalus. Instead, make a strong decoction and preserve it with 22% grain alcohol115
Cured. In China, the root is sometimes cured with honey. Conventional wisdom says that the cured root has more energizing properties.116
Dosage: How much do you use?
No safe dose has been determined by Western herbalists or regulatory agencies. The probable effective daily dose of the root is 2–6 g.117 In China, however, typical doses can be quite large, as much as 8–15 g, or higher, per day.118
If you are using the standardized extract, take 200–500 mg standardized extract four times a day for an acute condition, at the onset of a cold, for example.119 For ongoing use, take 200–500 mg once a day.120 Of course, if you get a preparation that’s standardized to a different level of glucosides and polysaccharides than the one mentioned above, read and follow label directions.
What should you be aware of before using it?
One of the few dangers in using astragalus is that we Westerners aren’t really sure what it is and what it does. Western studies are sparse. Commission E has no recommendations or guidelines. The FDA says little about it. The tradition of use in the West is short. It has been used in China and Japan for centuries with little ill effect and possible benefit, but those uses are different from a Western style of using herbs. What we do know is that as astragalus makes its way into the mainstream of Western society, it hasn’t been accompanied by any reports of toxicity, indicating that it is a relatively safe herb.121
Based on theoretical considerations, the following dangers are possible:122
Immunosuppressant (in high doses).123
Neurological dysfunction due to selenium content.124 Pigs fed high doses of a selenium-rich species (A. bisulcatus) developed weight loss and severe neurologic toxicity, including paralysis within five days.125 We have no studies on the effects of Astragalus membranaceus’ lower selenium content. Nonetheless, it is wise to avoid taking more than recommended doses.
It may increase the effects of antithrombotic drugs.126 It may also increase the risk of bleeding and/or bruising. If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking astragalus and discontinue use. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs known or suspected of increasing the risk of bleeding. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
It may increase or decrease the affects of immunosuppressants.127
Be cautious if you are taking drugs that act as a diuretic, as astragalus can compound that effect. Be cautious when taking it in conjunction with other herbs with diuretic properties.128 (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
We don’t know enough about astragalus to know whether it’s safe for children.129
Related species are harmful to pregnancies, but we don’t know if this species of astragalus is.130
Astragalus may lower blood pressure, especially at high doses. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs known to have blood pressure lowering properties.131 (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
People with diabetes or hypoglycemia, and those taking drugs that affect blood sugar, should talk to their doctor before using astragalus.132 Be cautious when using it in conjunction with herbs known or suspected to affect blood sugar levels. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Also be aware that not all species of astragalus can be used medicinally. Some are inactive, and some are toxic.133 For example, the American astragalus, typically known as locoweed (Astragalus mollissimus of the American Southwest and Rocky Mountain states) is toxic. Be sure to check that you are getting the correct species.
Bilberry Fruit
Scientific name: Vaccinium myrtillus
Also known as huckleberry, blackberry, blaeberry, bog berry, whortleberry, dwarf bilberry, whinberry, myrtill, burren myrtle, dyeberry, false huckleberry, hurtleberry, whinberry, and wineberry
Vaccinium myrtillus
Bilberry is native to North America. It grows on low bushes in acidic soils, in forests and moors in the Rockies of the United States, as well as Europe and Western Asia. The bilberry is very similar to the cranberry and the cowberry (V. vitisidaea), both of which are close relatives and both which have many of the same properties. Though typically harvested wild, some bilberries are cultivated commercially. The ripe fruit is used, both fresh and dried.
Bilberries are one of the few medicinal botanicals that are delicious. They taste like a cross between a blueberry and a cranberry and are used in jams, jellies, and juices in Europe. In the U.S., several Native American tribes used the berry as food, especially for celebrations, in addition to using it medicinally. In the Middle Ages, bilberries were an effective treatment for scurvy because of their high vitamin C content. They also contain higher levels of antioxidants than commercial North American blueberries.134 The deep blue color has been used as a dye and an ink.135
What is it good for?
Improvement of night vision. RAF pilots during World War II used bilberry to help improve night vision. At least four subsequent studies showed improvement in night vision and the ability of the eyes to adapt to darkness after exposure to bright light.136 However, recent studies done by the U.S. Air Force failed to find the effect.137
Protection against eye diseases. Preliminary research suggests that bilberry may reduce or reverse effects of degenerative eye disorders such as macular degeneration, cataracts, and glaucoma.138
Bruising. In one Italian study, bilberry’s anthocyanosides relaxed and dilated arteries, fostering blood circulation.139 In another human study, 47 adults with circulatory problems (atherosclerosis, a tendency to bruise easily, hemorrhoids and varicose veins) were given bilberry extracts. A statistically significant number reported reduced symptoms.140 These studies, however, are very preliminary and more useful as a direction for future research than as a guide to treatment of any particular condition.
Adaptogen. An adaptogen is an herb that helps the body successfully deal with the physical consequences of stress. Because stress is such a complex phenomenon, it’s hard to measure just how an herb might benefit a body under stress, but preliminary research into the effects of bilberry look promising. In rats, extracts of bilberry, specifically the chemical that makes the berry blue, helped protect the body against the effects of toxins.141 The berry is also a good source of quercetin, an anti-inflammatory.142 Moreover, the flavonoids have an antioxidant effect that might help prevent hardening of the arteries.143 Though none of this research is conclusive, it does suggest that bilberry might indeed have adaptogenic properties.
Sore throat and diarrhea. We have significantly less evidence that bilberry helps treat sore throat and diarrhea. Folk wisdom says that dried bilberries are good for these conditions. Bilberry does contain a pigment that is thought to inhibit the growth of bacteria. A small-scale study showed that it may help the body ward off bacterial infections.144 Moreover, it does contain tannins, which have had some traditional use as an astringent to treat diarrhea and sore throat. We have no direct scientific evidence, however, to support its effectiveness against either sore throat or diarrhea.
How do you use it?
Fresh or Dried. If you can’t find fresh bilberries, you may be able to find them dried (though it’s almost certain that they won’t be cheap when you do find them).
Infusion. Simmer the mashed bilberries in water for 10 minutes and then strain.
Commercially prepared extracts. Both standardized and not, bilberries are available in capsules, extracts, and tablets. Most of the standardized extracts are European. The best European preparations are high quality, pharmaceutical grade bilberry extract from whole, dried, ripe fruit. Standardization to 23% to 37% bilberry anthocyanosides is typical.145
Dosage: How much do you use?
Dried. The dried ripe berries are used in a dose of 20 to 60 g daily, eaten whole or prepared as a tea (infusion), divided into three doses.
Extracts. Standardized products with 25% anthocyanosides can be taken at a dose of 120 to 320 mg per day, divided into two or three doses.146
What should you be aware of before using it?
Bilberries have been used as a food for centuries and have no known toxicity. However, large quantities of the fresh fruit can have a laxative effect. In fact, that is also one of the traditional medicinal uses. Be cautious when using bilberries in conjunction with herbs known or suspected to have a laxative effect. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
If you are diabetic, hypoglycemic, or are taking insulin, glyburide, or a related drug, check with your doctor before using bilberries. Preliminary research indicates they may affect blood sugar levels.147 Be cautious when using it in conjunction with herbs known or suspected to affect blood sugar levels. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
If you are taking antithrombotic agents, check with your doctor before taking bilberries.148 Bilberries may retard clotting and increase the chance of bruising. If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking bilberries and discontinue use. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs known or suspected of increasing the risk of bleeding. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
It is probably best to avoid the leaves. Though they have some traditional uses, including the ability to lower blood sugar levels, their safety is in question. Oral tradition among herbalists says the leaves may be dangerous. Not enough research exists to evaluate how great or precisely what that danger may be.149
Bilberries contain ferulic acid, a known uterosedative. Though no reports of problems for pregnancy have been reported in the literature, it’s probably safest to avoid medicinal bilberry while pregnant until its safety has been better examined.
Though bilberries are sometimes called huckleberry, they should not be confused with members of the Gaylussacia genus, also called huckleberries, which are an entirely different berry. They should also not be confused with the berry more commonly called “blackberry,” Rosoideae rubus.
Borage Oil
Scientific name: Borago officinalis
Also known as burrage, starflower, bugloss, borage oil, starflower oil
Borage, Borago officinalis
An annual plant with bristly stems and blue star-shaped flowers, borage is native to the Mediterranean region and to central and eastern Europe. It has, however, become a common herb in western European herbal gardens, where it is also ornamental and attractive to bees. It also grows wild as an introduced species in the northern states of the United States. Borage oil is extracted from the seeds. The dry leaves can be made into a tea or a tincture, or the fresh leaves can be juiced.
An old saying goes like this: “ego borago gaudia semper ago.” (“I, borage, always bring courage.”)150 In old England, the leaves and flowers were added to wine to “drive away sadness, dullness, and melancholy.”151 John Evelyn, writing at the close of the seventeenth century, described how sprigs of borage helped students hold up under arduous studying.152 A modern take on the theme is that borage contains an essential fatty acid with possible adaptogenic properties.
Borage oil contains gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), an omega-6 fatty acid, which may have anti-inflammatory properties. Though other plants, most notably evening primrose and black currant, also contain GLA, borage oil contains it in higher concentrations.153 GLA is converted in the body into a hormone-like substance that helps regulate inflammation.154
What is it good for?
Arthritis. A small-scale 1993 study showed improvement in people with rheumatoid arthritis who took borage seed oil for twenty-four weeks.155 Another showed that it reduced damage to joint tissue in the rheumatoid arthritis sufferers who took very large doses.156 Animal studies show similar improvements for various inflammatory conditions.157
Stress. One study suggests that the GLA in borage oil helps the body deal with stress. In a small study, ten men who had been taking borage oil for 28 days had a statistically lower blood pressure and decreased heart rate when faced with experimental stress. Performing better than olive oil and fish oil (the controls), borage oil not only decreased the stress reaction but increased performance of the men while under stress.158 The study, however, was very small and not duplicated. Furthermore, the anecdotal evidence for borage oil as an antidote to stress is slim. One study and almost nonexistent tradition are together probably not enough to warrant taking borage oil to deal with stress.
Eczema. Herbalists sometimes prescribe borage oil (taken orally) for eczema. We have some evidence that it is the GLA in borage oil that is helpful for this condition. People with eczema tend to have abnormal levels of linoleic acid in their blood. GLA taken regularly may help restore normal levels.159 The evidence for this effect, however, is slim and equivocal, and many conventional doctors are still doubtful.160
Adrenal support. A popular claim of supplement stores is that borage leaf tea stimulates the adrenal glands. The old saying that borage gives courage would seem to support this claim. Modern research, though admittedly slim, doesn’t show any adrenal connection. Given that borage leaves have significant safety issues, it’s probably wise to leave them alone and to find your courage elsewhere.
How do you use it?
Oil is available in commercially prepared capsule form.
Dosage: How much do you use?
Recommended daily doses of the oil range widely, from 300–500 mg161 to 1,000–1,300 mg.162 If the oil you’re taking is standardized, look for roughly 240 to 300 mg of GLA.163 Studies tend to use very high doses of borage seed oil. While high doses don’t seem to have any adverse short-term effects, we still aren’t sure what pyrrolizidine in that amount is doing to the liver.
What should you be aware of before using it?
The German government no longer permits the sale of borage. The plant contains small amounts of the liver toxin pyrrolizidine.164 Some herbalists suggest that the German government’s decision was an overreaction, citing the fact that borage has been used safely for centuries both as a food and as a medicine, and other legal herbs have more pyrrolizidine than borage. For safety’s sake, it’s probably best to avoid borage leaves entirely. Most of the uses for the leaves do not go beyond local, anecdotal tradition. Clinical evidence of benefit is lacking.165 As for the oil, if you can’t wait for studies to verify its safety, strongly consider either using it only short-term or having long-term use overseen by a physician.
Another alternative is to try refined gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). GLA is the main (but not only) active oil in borage oil. Because it’s been extracted from the rest of the borage oil, it doesn’t contain pyrrolizidine. One thousand to 1,300 mg of borage oil contains 240 to 300 mg of GLA. Nearly equivalent doses of GLA can also be found in 3,000 mg of evening primrose oil or 1,500 mg of black currant seed oil.166
If you want to take borage oil, find a qualified herbalist, naturopath, or physician to supervise you. It’s not a good do-it-yourself herb.
Borage oil may cause loose stools and/or stomach upset.167 If you experience stomach upset, discontinue taking borage oil immediately. Stomach upset is an early symptom of pyrrolizidine alkaloids poisoning. The disease, however, can be doing damage before any symptoms manifest themselves.168
People with liver problems should not take borage oil.169 Even healthy people should not take it in conjunction with any other herb or drug known to affect liver function. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Pregnant women and nursing mothers should avoid using borage oil supplements.170
Those with seizure disorders should avoid using borage oil.171 Those taking phenothiazine drugs are at increased seizure risk if they take borage concurrently.172
Furthermore, high doses (24 g per day) of borage oil can increase spontaneous clotting of the blood.173 If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking borage oil and discontinue use.
Bromelain
Scientific name: Sulphydryl proteolytic enzyme, cysteine-proteinase
Commercially prepared bromelain tablets
Bromelain is an enzyme obtained from pineapple. Though bromelain can be derived from both the fruit and the stem, most commercial preparations come from the stem.
Bromelain, discovered in 1957, is not strictly an herb, but rather is an enzyme. A treatment for bruises and inflammation, it works by breaking down fibrin, a blood clotting protein. Once the protein is broken down, circulation increases and tissues drain better. Bromelain is also an anti-inflammatory agent.174
What is it good for?
Bruises to skin and muscle (the attendant pain and inflammation). The most carefully controlled study was one conducted on rabbits. When bromelain was applied to a skeletal muscle and then the muscle was injured, the bromelain helped protect the muscle (as compared to similarly injured rabbits not treated with bromelain).175 The human studies so far also show promise. In a small human study that used bromelain to treat blunt injuries to muscles, subjects receiving bromelain in addition to standard care by an orthopedist had a significant reduction in swelling, tenderness, and pain at rest and during movement as compared with those who just received standard care.176 In another study of boxers, bruises healed significantly quicker in those who took bromelain.177 Test-tube studies have found that bromelain contains anti-inflammatory properties, which may explain these results.178
Reducing joint pain, especially knee pain. Bromelain has shown some anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in a small study. Researchers put otherwise healthy subjects, who were experiencing mild yet acute knee pain (less than three months’ duration) on 200–400 mg of bromelain per day. At the higher dose, subjects experienced a reduction in overall symptoms, including stiffness, and had improved function.179
Arthritis. Studies investigating bromelain as a treatment for the symptoms of osteoarthritis have been promising. A least ten preliminary studies have been conducted investigating its use for treating pain and stiffness of arthritis. Though not unequivocal, evidence is strong that it can be useful.180
Repairing ligament and tendon damage. A German study, conducted in 1995 gave bromelain to people with torn ligaments. After one to three weeks of taking the supplements, swelling, tenderness and pain were comparable to people taking NSAIDs such as aspirin.181
Asthma and allergies. Preliminary studies show that bromelain may help reduce the symptoms of asthma and allergic airway disorders.182
Delayed onset muscle soreness. Bromelain’s benefits seem to be limited to pain and swelling due to injury (either accidental or surgical). Studies into delayed onset muscle soreness (in other words, muscle soreness not resulting from injury but from strenuous exercise) show mixed results. One found no help from either bromelain or ibuprofen.183 Another found some help from protease tablets containing bromelain and other ingredients, but it is not clear that the benefit came from bromelain and not from another one of the ingredients.184
How do you use it?
Bromelain comes in commercially prepared tablets or capsules. Bromelain can be used after trauma to aid healing. If, however, you anticipate a particularly grueling tournament or other event, you can also begin to take bromelain 72 hours before the event and it will help mitigate trauma. Take bromelain on an empty stomach.185
Dosage: How much do you use?
It is difficult to tell how much of the active ingredient you are getting as compared to the bromelain used in studies. Standardized bromelain can be measured in any one of several methods. The most common are GDUs (gelatin dissolving units) or MCUs (milk clotting units). One GDU equals approximately 1.5 MCU.186 Bromelain can, however, also be standardized to FIP units, Bromelain Tyrosine Units, or Rorer units.
A dose of 3,000 MCU, three times per day for several days, followed by 2,000 MCU three times per day is about the highest dose found in the literature.187 Most of the studies used smaller amounts, roughly 500 MCU taken four times per day.188 Doses above 460 mg can begin to cause troubling side effects (increased heart rate, heart palpitations, and raised blood pressure) in some people.189
What should you be aware of before using it?
Bromelain is thought to have fairly low toxicity. Studies where high doses were given daily to dogs showed no ill effects after six months.190
Bromelain is a natural blood thinner in that it prevents platelets from sticking together.191 Don’t take bromelain if you are taking anticoagulants. In other words, choose between bromelain and aspirin or ibuprofen; don’t take them both together. If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking bromelain and discontinue use. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs known or suspected of increasing the risk of bleeding. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Bromelain may interfere with the absorption of some antibiotics.192
Bromelain may compound the effects of some sedatives.193
Don’t take more than 460 mg per day if you have a history of heart palpitation.194
Be very conservative using it if you are prone to menorrhagia.
Occasionally gastric disturbances or diarrhea occur, especially with higher dose. If you have an ulcer or gastritis, check with your doctor before taking bromelain.195
Allergic reactions are possible,196 but they are more common when the bromelain powder is inhaled than they are when it is taken orally. Be especially cautious if you are allergic to pineapple, horseradish, or olive tree pollen.197
Calendula
Scientific name: Calendula officinalis
Also known as garden marigold, pot marigold, goldblood, holligold, kingscup, maravilla, marybud, Scotch marigold, mary-bud, goldbloom
Calendula, Calendula officinalis
A relative of the sunflower, calendula grows to one or two feet in height. The daisy-like flowers range from a deep orange-yellow to almost red. A member of the aster (Compositae) family, it is a native of the Mediterranean but grows wild (as an introduced species) throughout the northeastern states of the United States. The whole flowers are used medicinally.
Calendula is one of those plants with a long history of medicinal use. It was used in ancient Greece, Rome, Arabia, and India not just for healing but also for dye, and as food.198 Its use in Europe dates back at least to the Middle Ages, where it was used medicinally and also as a dye for cheese. Today it is not just a medicinal plant but a decorative one, adorning parks and gardens in Europe and throughout the world. Plants sold in your local gardening center under the name “marigold” are not typically calendula, however.
What is it good for?
Soothing wounds, especially abrasions, cuts, sunburn. The traditional evidence for calendula’s use as a treatment for wounds is strong. It has been used for centuries, first in the ancient Near East, eventually in Europe and North America for wounds, especially those that required a treatment with soothing properties (for example, irritations, eczema, scrapes, and insect bites). Italian folk medicine used it as an anti-inflammatory.199 The Eclectic School cites its use as a vulnerary for ulcers, and burns.
Laboratory analysis reveals possible bacteria-fighting chemicals,200 antiviral chemicals,201 and triterpenoids,202 which are anti-inflammatory compounds that have been shown to speed wound healing in animal studies.203 A very preliminary, poorly controlled, 2004 study showed that women receiving radiation treatment for breast cancer experienced less severe dermatitis (skin irritation, redness and pain due to radiation burns) when they were treated with calendula cream twice a day.204 A second study with five volunteers found that artificially induced abrasions healed more quickly when treated with calendula.205 A third showed accelerated healing of venous leg ulcers that were treated with calendula.206 Though human trials are still small scale and poorly controlled, the tradition combined with the laboratory and animal evidence is strong enough that Germany’s Commission E recommends it for wound healing, especially slow healing wounds.207
Fungal infections. Reports of calendula’s anti-fungal properties are mixed. We have no experimental evidence for anti-fungal properties.208 The tradition as a treatment for fungal infections is not as strong as that for wounds. However, the soothing properties of calendula may be a welcome relief from an itchy fungal infection.
Warts. European tradition says that a poultice of crushed stems and leaves can help soften warts and make them easily removable. Calendula may also have some antiviral properties, though we don’t know that it kills wart virus. In short, we have no scientific or cross-cultural corroboration for this use.
How do you use it?
Infusion. Make an infusion for use as a wash or compress. Pour 1 cup of boiling water over ½ teaspoon of dried flowers and infuse for 10 minutes.209
Infused oil. Infused oil can be made by adding 3 ounces fresh ground calendula petals to 10 ounces oil. The oil is made using the hot infusion method.210
Tincture. Two options are possible for calendula tincture: 1:5 tincture in 90% alcohol211 or 1:9 in 20% alcohol.212 Dilute the tincture at least 1:3 with freshly boiled water for topical use213 or use two droppers full of the tincture to a cup of water to make a mouth rinse good for canker sores.
Ointment. Powdered calendula can be mixed into a carrier ointment for topical use.214
Commercial preparations are also available.
Dosage: How much do you use?
No toxic reactions have been reported for calendula.215 A probable effective dosage is one gram of the whole flower, 1–2.5 teaspoons (5–12 ml) of the tincture per day, split into three doses. The ointment or tincture can be applied topically several times per day.216 A 2–5% preparation has been deemed safe by the German Commission E and the European Scientific Co-operative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP).217
What should you be aware of before using it?
Evidence for effective topical use is much stronger than the evidence for effective internal use. Though tradition has it that internal use of calendula is safe,218 the long-term effects of internal use have not been studied. Using calendula topically only is a conservative, but reasonable course of action.
Though calendula has a largely safe reputation, adverse reactions, including skin and eye irritation, have been reported.219 In one study, 2% of the people using topical calendula had an allergic reaction to it. Calendula can also magnify allergic reaction to other substances used in conjunction with it (fragrances, other herbs, etc.).220
If you are allergic to ragweed or any other plant in the Aster/Compositae family, you are likely to be allergic to calendula as well. Allergies to calendula can be severe. At least one case of anaphylactic shock is on the books.221
Some herbalists advise against using calendula during pregnancy.222 We don’t know enough to know whether it’s safe or not.
Calendula may lower blood pressure when taken internally. Use caution when combining it with other drugs or herbs that also lower blood pressure. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
We don’t know enough about calendula to know if it’s safe for children.223
Calendula is also used in homeopathic medicines. If you buy calendula cream, be aware of whether the cream is prepared as an herbal remedy or a homeopathic remedy because the two preparations are very different.
Calendula is only one of several plants in the Asteraceae family that bear the name “marigold.” Other marigolds—corn marigolds, desert marigolds, and the French marigolds commonly seen in the lawn and garden section of home improvement stores—do not have the same medicinal properties.
Capsicum
Scientific name: Capsicum spp., especially Capsicum frutescens
Also known as capsicum, chilies, chili peppers, Tabasco pepper, paprika, cayenne, peppers
An assortment of peppers of the Capsicum genus
Capsicum, the pepper genus, contains at least fifty varieties. Among the best known are Capsicum annuum, which includes bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika, and the chiltepin; Capsicum frutescens, which includes the cayenne and Tabasco peppers; Capsicum chinense, which includes the mouth-searing habanero and Scotch bonnet peppers; and Capsicum pubescens and Capsicum baccatum, lesser known South American peppers. Originally native to South America, peppers are now grown throughout the world both for medicinal and culinary purposes. It is the fruit of this plant, the whole red peppers, that contain the medicinal compound. They are picked when fully ripe, dried, and often ground to a powder.
The substance that gives chili peppers their medicinal value is also what gives them their heat. This compound, capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide), is an irritant that serves to protect the pepper from herbivores. Plants with more capsaicin were less likely to be eaten and so were more likely to reproduce. Over the generations, that process naturally selected for ever hotter peppers. Capsaicin is also what gives self-defense pepper sprays their punch.
What is it good for?
Muscle aches. The Eclectic School recommended peppers for “muscular rheumatism.” Tradition has it that capsicum is especially effective on painful muscle spasms in areas of shoulder, arm and spine. The mechanism by which capsaicin relieves pain is now beginning to be understood. Some of its effects are merely diversionary.224 The sensations on the skin take the mind away from pain deeper in the body. But the effects go beyond diversion to the neurological. When the body is continually exposed to capsaicin, sensory neurons are depleted of neurotransmitters. The cause of the pain remains, but the pain signal no longer reaches the brain because of the lack of neurotransmitters. The result is a reduction in sensation of pain. When the exposure is discontinued, the neurons recover and the pain returns if the cause of the pain is still present.225
Clinical studies have demonstrated this pain-relieving effect. In a study of low back pain, capsaicin cream decreased pain and increased mobility significantly better than a placebo.226 Another study showed similar benefits to low back pain from a capsaicin plaster.227 In 2007, surgeons began experimenting with an ultrastrong, ultrapurified (to avoid infection) capsaicin preparation. Volunteers had capsaicin introduced to surgical wounds to minimize postoperative pain.228 Similarly, the National Institutes of Health is experimenting with capsaicin for the severe pain of advanced cancer sufferers. Both of the 2007 studies are still in progress, and the jury is still out as to whether they will show benefit, but the fact that large-scale experiments are being conducted by major medical organizations shows a beginning acceptance on the part of Western medicine of capsaicin’s pain relieving properties.229 The FDA has approved over-the-counter capsaicin preparations for this use.
Relieving joint pain caused by injury or arthritis. The mechanism by which capsaicin alleviates joint pain when applied topically is the same as the way it relieves muscle pain. The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory recommends capsicum ointment (made from peppers, lard, and paraffin) as a counterirritant for sprains, bruises, and rheumatism. Topical application reduces pain and swelling from arthritis in rats.230 In a human trial, however, it provided no pain relief for sufferers of TMJ.231 One study found help for osteoarthritis but no help for rheumatoid arthritis.232 Another found reduction in knee pain for both rheumatoid and osteoarthritis sufferers.233 The FDA has approved over-the-counter capsaicin preparations for this use.
Antibiotics. The ancient Mayans used extracts of chilies as antibiotics. Modern research has begun to discover that the pepper does indeed have some antimicrobial properties.234 Exactly how those properties can be of use is still unknown.
Treating colds and flu. The Cherokee used it for colds.235 The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory recommended capsicum tincture for “sluggish conditions of the throat.” It also has been used traditionally to help sweat out a fever.236 Capsaicin irritates mucus membranes causing the nose to run. In that way, it can help with colds that clog the nose and sinuses, but it is unlikely to benefit colds where the primary symptom is already a runny nose. A study of a nasal spray containing capsaicin found that though it was quite painful, it did reduce nasal obstruction and nasal secretion in patients with vasomotor rhinitis (a chronic runny nose not caused by a virus or allergies) over the course of a month.237 Such a nasal spray would probably be ill advised for colds, however, because the treatment reached its full benefit over the course of a month, long after a typical cold would be over. Capsicum has been tried with some success against tonsillitis, but this study was not very large or well controlled, so it’s not sure what exactly the benefits might be.238
Increasing athletic performance. One study found that adding 10 g of red pepper to men’s diet increased the carbohydrate oxidation without increasing total energy expenditure for 150 minutes after the meal.239 In other words, it increased the ability of the body to burn carbohydrates for fuel without increasing the need for that fuel. A similar study found that 10 g of red pepper added to breakfast increased carbohydrate oxidation in male long distance runners both at rest and during exercise.240 A third study of Japanese women, on the other hand, found that adding red pepper to a meal actually decreased carbohydrate oxidation. Though theoretically increasing carbohydrate oxidation could make more fuel available for athletic performance, it is by no means certain that (1) A direct link exists between carbohydrate oxidation and improved performance, and (2) capsaicin does indeed increase carbohydrate oxidation in all athletes.
Slowing bleeding. One traditional use is to take a couple of capsules or drink a half-teaspoon of capsicum in a glass of water to slow bleeding. We have no scientific backing or cross-cultural attestation for this use.
How do you use it?
Commercial preparations. By far, the safest way to use capsaicin topically is to use it in a commercial preparation. It is really the only way to control the amount of capsaicin you are putting on your skin. Too little won’t give you the relief you seek; too much can damage your skin.
Infusions. Make an infusion using ½ teaspoon of dried peppers to one cup of boiling water. Stir and let the mixture sit for ten minutes. If you wish, you can strain it at this time, or you can use it without straining. Use 1 tablespoon of this infusion with a cup of water to make tea. The tea can be used to help unplug the nose during a cold. It can also be applied to a compress and used for sprains, bruising, and joint pain.241
Infused oil. Add 25 g of powder to two cups sunflower oil and heat in a double boiler for two hours. This infused oil is good as a massage oil for joint pain. Don’t use it with additional heat (such as a heating pad, hot water bottle or warm flannel), however, because this increases the chance of irritation and blistering. If you want to take a hot bath or shower, do so first, and then let the skin cool before applying capsaicin.242
Tincture. 95% alcohol 1:5 (pepper to alcohol)243 Dilute the tincture 1:10 to use as a liniment.244
A vinegar tincture can be made by boiling 1 tablespoon of pepper with 1 pint of cider vinegar. While the vinegar is still hot, pour it into a clean bottle without straining out the pepper.245
Muscle rubs: A muscle rub can be made by adding ¼ teaspoon powdered capsicum to 1 cup grain alcohol. Of course, you should use this rub topically only.246
Dosage: How much do you use?
The safety of chilis depends largely on how strong they are. The “heat” of the various peppers in the capsicum genus varies from nonexistent to extremely dangerous. The unit of measurement for chili “heat” is the Scoville unit. Pure capsaicin rates at 15,000,000 Scoville units; bell peppers rate at 0 Scoville units. Cayenne peppers of the species frutescens rate at 30,000–50,000 units.247 If you use stronger peppers, you must adjust the dose appropriately. It cannot be stressed enough: some varieties of peppers can cause blisters and burns bad enough to strip the skin right off you. Know what you have in your hand before trying to use it medicinally.
If you are buying your capsicum preparations over the counter, Commission E recommends liquid preparations not contain more than .01% pure capsaicin.
Topical preparations. Poultices and compresses should deliver no more than 40 g of capsaicinoids per square centimeter.248 Creams containing .025% and .075% capsaicin are available over the counter in both the United States and Canada. Stronger “back-alley” creams can be found, but are unadvisable. Don’t use topical preparations for longer than 2 days; 14 days must pass before a new application can be used in the same location.249 Generally, the preparation will penetrate the skin in thirty minutes.250 If you’d like, you can wash the rest off the surface at that time, for example, to avoid spreading it to undesirable areas while you sleep. Warm soapy water or a mild vinegar solution will wash capsicum from the skin.251
Oral preparations. Be very cautious when using capsicum in capsules. The benefits of oral capsicum supplementation (beyond normal use as a spice) are questionable.252 The danger to liver and digestion are, however, well documented. The main problem with capsicum in capsules is that your mouth will not be able to give you feedback about the amount of irritation your stomach and liver will have to endure. It is safe to say that making and consuming your own capsicum capsules contains more risk than reward. If, however, you insist on making your own oral preparations, use no more than 30–120 mg of dried Capsicum frutescens per day, taken with a cup of water.253
What should you be aware of before using it?
Be very cautious using any preparation that isn’t standardized. Too much capsaicin can cause blistering, burns, hypersensitivity, skin ulcers, dermatitis, and temporary and permanent nerve damage.254
Don’t use topical preparations for longer than 2 days; 14 days must pass before a new application can be used in the same location.255
Don’t use capsicum on or near open wounds.256
Be very careful if you are taking capsicum as a capsule. Too much is hard on the liver and the lining of the gastrointestinal system. If you eat the peppers, the heat is self limiting, but if you take them as a capsule, you don’t have that feedback. Too much can cause diarrhea, stomach pain, and a burning sensation during bowel movements.257 It is possible to die from too much capsicum.258
If you have high blood pressure, check with a doctor before using capsicum medicinally.259
Don’t take capsicum orally if you have inflammation of mucous membranes or excessive mucus, because it can aggravate these conditions. Don’t use it without consulting a doctor first if you are prone to gastrointestinal problems.260
Too much capsicum can cause gastroesophageal reflux (GER) symptoms.261 Contrary to popular belief, capsicum does not aggravate hemorrhoid symptoms.262 It may even help protect the lining of the stomach against aspirin.263
Don’t leave a capsicum compress on for a long time, and don’t use it if you are likely to fall asleep while it’s on. Too much exposure can cause irritation and even blistering. If you have fair or sensitive skin, try a little of the infusion or oil on a small area before using. Keep it out of your eyes and mucous membranes. Don’t apply to broken skin.
Handle capsicum with respect. If you’re grinding dried capsicum, wear a mask. If working with fresh peppers, either avoid touching the pepper directly or wear gloves. After handling peppers, never touch your eyes, nose, ears, or groin without washing your hands thoroughly. Don’t use the seeds because they tend to be stronger.
Be careful training with your muscles and joints under the influence of capsicum. When you use capsicum you are masking pain signals that may be your body’s way of trying to tell you something. Masking pain can lead to further injury.
Capsicum can be used topically on adults, and on school-aged children if appropriate caution is observed. It shouldn’t be used on children younger than school-aged.
Capsicum may interfere with MAO inhibitors and antihypertensive therapy, and may increase hepatic metabolism of drugs.264
If you tend to be anemic, be careful about taking capsicum internally because it can interfere with iron absorption.265
Caraway
Scientific name: Carum carvi
Also known as Apium carvi, Persian cumin
Caraway “seeds,” Carum carvi
Caraway is a member of the carrot family; the relationship is best seen in the shape of its feathery leaves. It is native to Europe and Asia Minor, but is now cultivated throughout the world. In some parts of the United States, wild caraway is now considered a noxious weed. The part of the plant that’s used medicinally is commonly called the “seed,” though it is actually a small ribbed fruit. When dried, this fruit looks like a small, crescent-shaped seed.
The smell, similar to anise, comes from carvone and limonene, essential oils in the seeds. Carvone is an antiseptic. Limonene is an antiseptic and antispasmodic.
What is it good for?
Digestion. Caraway is best known as an aid to help expel trapped gas in the intestines. It is also good for a jumpy stomach. The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory cites its use as a stomachic and carminative. The Eclectic School also cites its use as a carminative. Commission E recommends it for flatulence. Its use as a digestive aid, however, is largely untested and a matter of some dispute.266 Only one preliminary, less than rigorous study has been done on caraway’s value in treating dyspepsia. It showed that caraway appeared to help mild non-ulcer dyspepsia, but the effect may have been attributable to nothing more than time.267 A combination study—caraway and peppermint taken together—showed that the combination worked as well at treating dyspepsia as Cisapride® (a prescription medication for dyspepsia, subsequently taken off the market due to troubling side effects).268
Kills bacteria. In an in vitro study, caraway’s essential oils worked well against several bacteria.269 The implications of these results for human use, however, are not clear.
How do you use it?
Store caraway seeds between 40 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit (2–35 degrees Centigrade). Temperatures above 75 will degrade the essential oils.
Essential Oil. The seeds are dried before being used medicinally. The essential oil is derived from the seed by commercial steam distillation. Caraway oil is one of the few essential oils that can be taken internally in small doses. The traditional way to take it is to put a couple drops on a sugar cube.
Infusion. A tea can be made from the seeds to drink after meals. One traditional remedy involves one ounce of seed cold infused in a pint of water.270 “Bruise” or slightly crush the seeds before making the infusion. Alternatively, the seeds can be chewed and swallowed.
Tincture. Scandinavians have a traditional “digestive” liquor made by adding the essential oil of caraway to a vodka-like distillation. Tradition says it helps digestion of rich meals. Evidence for this property is not found outside of tradition, however.
Dosage: How much do you use?
No upper dose has been set, as caraway seems relatively safe at most sane doses. A typical dose is 1–2 cups of the infusion daily for an adult.271 Or 2–3 drops of the essential oil on a sugar cube for no more than six drops per day.272
What should you be aware of before using it?
Caraway is on the FDA’s list of substances generally recognized as safe.273 However, long-term intake of larger doses of the essential oil can cause kidney and liver damage.274
The essential oil of caraway is an irritant. It especially irritates mucous membranes and can cause contact dermatitis.
Some herbalists recommend that women avoid medicinal doses of caraway while pregnant, though this recommendation is based on conjecture from caraway’s antispasmodic properties, not from any reports of miscarriage.275
If you are allergic to dong quai, anise, carrot, celery, dill, or parsley you have an increased chance of being allergic to caraway.
Catnip
Scientific name: Nepeta cataria
Also known as catmint, catwort, field balm, catrup
Nepeta cataria
Catnip is a perennial herb—some would say “weed”—of the mint family. It grows wild throughout the United States and Canada. The leaf and flower are used medicinally.
It makes cats a bit crazy, but it will help you settle yourself. This is a good herb for those days when you have something on your mind that’s giving you a headache, making your stomach do flip flops, and keeping you from sleeping. Tradition says that catnip is good for all three of these problems.
What is it good for?
Sedative or insomnia treatment. The anecdotal evidence for catnip as a calmative is strong. It’s commonly used in Appalachia, especially as a calmative for children.276 The Keres Indians used an infusion of catnip in a bath for tiredness.277 The Cherokee used it as a sedative for hysterics.278 The Iroquois279 and Delaware280 used it as a tea to soothe babies and help them to sleep. Clinical evidence, however, is all but nonexistent. We know that catnip contains nepetalactone, which is similar to a compound in valerian, an herb with known sedative properties, but we don’t know exactly how the compound nepetalactione affects people.281 The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory calls catnip “therapeutically feeble.”
How do you use it?
Infusion. To relax before bed, brew a cup of tea using two teaspoons of the dried leaves and flowering tops to one cup of water.282 Heat the water to a boil, let it cool slightly, then add the herbs and steep for about ten minutes. Be careful not to boil the herbs.283 The Eclectic School believed that catnip tea should never be sweetened.
Tincture. 1:2 fresh, 1:5 dried, 50% alcohol.284
Bath. A small amount of catnip in a sack can be placed under the spout of a bathtub for a relaxing bath.
Dosage: How much do you use?
Commercial preparations will include dosage information.
If using an infusion, limit yourself to six teaspoons of the dry herb per day split between three cups of tea. If using a tincture, the dose is one teaspoon, three times per day.285 These doses are the absolute most you’ll want to take, and then only on an occasional basis. Catnip causes nasty symptoms in some people—headaches, drowsiness, and stomach irritation. It also contains tannins, which are hard on the body in high or frequent doses. Consequently, if you want a more conservative dose, that dose is one cup of tea per day, before bedtime, for occasional use only.286 No matter which dose you decide on, you should avoid using catnip long-term.
What should you be aware of before using it?
Catnip gives some people headaches.
Some people report becoming draggy or even punchy from catnip. Make sure you know its effects on you before you try driving or training with it in your system. It may compound the effect of other sedative herbs. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
One case of central nervous system depression has been reported in a toddler who swallowed a large amount of catnip.287
Too much will cause vomiting.288
Catnip agents are tannin substances.289 Tannins shouldn’t be used internally over the long term. Animal studies indicated that catnip might have negative side effects after long-term usage. Limit use to occasional use only.290
Catnip tea can have a diuretic effect.291
Don’t use it during pregnancy.
Cat’s Claw
Scientific name: Uncaria tomentosa
Also known as una de gato
Cat’s Claw, Uncaria tomentosa
Courtesy of Johannes Keplinger
Cat’s claw comes from the inside of the bark of a South American rainforest vine. The name comes from the hook-like thorns it uses to climb trees.
The indigenous people of Peru’s rain forests use the cat’s claw for a number of purposes including arthritis, bone aches, and deep cuts.292 Its first introduction to Western herbal medicine was in the 1970s. Since the 1990s, its use has been on the rise in Europe and North America. Fifteen years later, that use is still largely in the experimental stage. Doctors and herbalists are still investigating its ability to treat conditions as different as AIDS and ulcers, Crohn’s disease and cancer.293 Yet cat’s claw is not on the Commission E recommended list because at this point we don’t know enough about it to know about its dangers, and we don’t have enough experience either clinical or anecdotal to predict what it might be effective for.
What is it good for?
Arthritis and other joint pain. The Asháninka people of Peru have traditionally used the herb for joint pain. Research suggests a good scientific basis for this use. The beta-sitosterol and carboxyl alkyl esters in cat’s claw are anti-inflammatories. In rat-paw studies, cat’s claw was shown to have anti-inflammatory effects.294 Preliminary clinical trials for rheumatoid arthritis show modest benefits.295 Preliminary research for osteoarthritis show significant benefits.296 Though evidence for this use is still small-scale, it is promising.
Immune stimulant. Cat’s claw contains carboxyl alkyl esters, which are thought to be an immune stimulant. It is sometimes prescribed in Europe for this purpose.297 In mouse studies cat’s claw shows some immune stimulation effect.298 However, research is very slim and not backed by clinical trials. Some anecdotal evidence for this use can be found, but it, too, is lacking.
How do you use it?
Commercially prepared capsules. Cat’s claw is typically taken internally. The most common preparation is the commercially prepared capsules containing dried, powdered cat’s claw.
Decoction. If you can get a hold of the bark, you can make a standard decoction, adding about a half teaspoon of lemon juice or vinegar to each cup of water to help extract more of the active ingredients.299 Take cat’s claw between meals.300
Dosage: How much do you use?
The bottom line is that we don’t know what a good dose is. A typical dose is 3–5 g daily of the powdered vine or ½–1 cup of a decoction once a day.301 However, the largest commercial source of cat’s claw is rural Peru, and that presents a problem. Because the amount of active ingredient in the preparation varies with the age of the tree and how it is harvested, and because Latin America is yet to establish a reputation for consistency in its preparation of herbs, one cannot be quite sure how much active ingredient is contained in any given preparation.302 In Germany and Austria, cat’s claw has been standardized, but it is available only by physician’s prescription.303
What should you be aware of before using it?
Preliminary research shows a no negative effects on either blood or liver and no significant side effects with short-term use.304 Animal trials show a relatively low level of toxicity, but we don’t know how people are going to react if they take the herb long-term.305
Cat’s claw may cause low blood pressure.306
It may have an additive effect if you are taking anticoagulants.307 If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking cat’s claw and discontinue use. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs known or suspected of increasing the risk of bleeding. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
It may have immunostimulant properties and should not be taken by anyone with an overactive immune system.
It may have some antifertility properties. That was one of the traditional uses by the Peruvian Indians; however, we don’t know how effective it is as a contraceptive. It should not be relied on as such.308
The molecular structure of some of the alkaloids in cat’s claw is similar to morphine.309 Know how the herb affects you before driving or training under its influence.
If stomach upset or diarrhea is severe or lasts longer than three or four days, discontinue use.310
If you are allergic to coffee, be careful taking cat’s claw because they are members of the same family.
A related species, Uncaria guianensis, is more common in Europe. South Americans consider the two to be interchangeable.311 However recent research has shown important differences not only between the species, but between subspecies of Uncaria tomentosa.312 This section applies to Uncaria tomentosa, with the proviso that we may soon find that the research results don’t apply to the entire species.
It is not the same as cat claw acacia (Acacia greggii) of the American Southwest. Cat claw acacia can be poisonous. It is also not interchangeable with the other twelve species in Peru that are also called una de gato. Make sure the cat claw you get has the species name on it.
Cayenne
(See Capsicum)
Chamomile
Scientific name: Chamaemelum nobile, Matricaria recutita
Also known as babuna, camamila, ground apple, manzanilla, may-then, nervine, pin heads, whig-plant
German Chamomile, Matricaria recutita
Courtesy of Rob Hille
Chamomile is a small annual plant native to Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Because of its usefulness, it is now grown throughout Europe, Australia, and North America. Chamomile consists of two completely different species. Chamaemelum nobile, Roman Chamomile, is otherwise known as Anthemis nobilis. Matricaria recutita is commonly known as German chamomile. The medicinal properties of the two are reputed to be very similar, but the chemical breakdown shows profound differences.313 Modern research has focused on M. recutita, German or “true” chamomile, which appears to be slightly stronger.314 The flower is used for infusions, tinctures, as well as for the essential oil, which can be quite expensive.
Chamomile is one of the most popular herbal remedies in Europe. Since Roman times, it’s been used for a wide variety of ailments. The Germans refer to it as alles zutraut, which means “capable of anything.”315 In Germany it’s used by adults and children for medicine, cosmetics, and beverage; and for conditions as varied as colds, ulcers, wounds, and insomnia. A gentle sedative, also good for relieving indigestion, it’s known as an after-dinner tea. It also contains several compounds (chamazulene, a-bisabolol, chrysoplenin, chrysoplenol, jaceidin) which have an anti-inflammatory effect.316
What is it good for?
Insomnia from anxiety. The herb has strong traditional use. The Eclectic School prescribed chamomile for nervous unrest. It contains apigenin, which binds to benzodiazepine receptors in the brain. This mechanism causes a mild sedative effect that affects anxiety levels but does not slow muscle function.317 Studies in mice show that chamomile reduces anxiety and promotes sleep.318
Sores. Chamomile wash has traditionally been used for sores, particularly itchy and oozing ones. One traditional use of chamomile is for sunburns that blister and ooze. A related species, Matricaria discoidea DC., was used in North America by the Native Americans for sores. European oral tradition says that rinsing the mouth with cooled chamomile tea helps with mouth inflammation or injury.
The exact mechanism by which chamomile aids in the healing of wounds is unknown, but evidence suggests that it promotes tissue granulation and regeneration. In other words, it attracts the cells that build new tissue.319 Several compounds in chamomile have anti-inflammatory properties,320 and the benefits of those properties are well documented in animals.321 It may also have some minor antibacterial properties.322 It contains important flavonoids, including quercimeritin, which is involved in the reduction of capillary fragility.323 The clinical research for this use, however, is still sketchy. One study found that mice with induced itching were helped by oral chamomile extracts.324 A study of people healing after dermabrasion to remove tattoos showed that chamomile extract helped dry oozing sores and so promoted healing.325
Colds. This use dates back to Roman times. Roman physicians prescribed chamomile for colds, flu, and fever. In Germany it is one of the most popular herbs for cold treatment as well. We don’t, however, have nearly as much research as one might expect for this use. A single 1990 study showed that people who inhaled steam containing chamomile extract during a cold reported a decrease in symptoms.326
How do you use it?
Infusion. Infusion is the most common way of using chamomile despite the fact that the essential oils in chamomile are not very water-soluble. Only 10–15% of chamomile’s essential oil is extracted into an infusion.327 Still people throughout the centuries have used it in this way. To make an infusion of chamomile, use the standard infusion method. Use ½ to 2 teaspoons of dried flowers for each 8 ounces of water. Pour very hot (not boiling) water over the flowers, cover, steep for 5 minutes, and then strain.328 It makes a good after dinner tea, both helping with digestion and encouraging sleep. You can also add a quart or so of the strained tea to your evening bath to encourage sleep. Or you can use the strained infusion at room temperature as a rinse for inflammation or injuries to the mouth. It may also help with bad breath if the problem is an oral one, not a digestive one.
Ointment for wounds. Commercial chamomile ointments and lotions are available. Look for at least 3% chamomile.329 Or you can make your own from the essential oil (using method seven for creams and salves in Chapter 3).
Essential oil. Put a few drops of chamomile essential oil in a half ounce of carrier oil.330 It is good for skin irritations.
Tincture. 1:5, 50% (for dried flowers). For colds, use a tincture of chamomile (2–3 tablespoons) in a quart of hot water. Heat the water until steaming, add the chamomile tincture, and then inhale the steam slowly and deeply for ten minutes, keeping your head and the bowl of water covered with a towel to trap the steam. The effects peak after around a half hour and last for two to three hours. If you feel a bit dizzy while inhaling the steam, uncover your head for a moment. Dizziness is less pronounced with lower doses of chamomile.331
Bath. For relaxation, if you don’t want to drink chamomile tea, you can use it in a bath. Tie a half a cup of dried chamomile flowers in some cheesecloth. Lay it under the running water while you fill the tub.332
Dosage: How much do you use?
Chamomile is on the FDA list of herbs that are generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Though higher doses have been used for specific, medically supervised treatments (e.g. ulcers), the following are common doses for internal uses:
Tincture. Use 1/8 to 1 teaspoon three times a day is a typical internal dose.333
Tea or infusion. Use one cup (8 ounces) of tea, three to four times per day.
Commercially prepared capsules. 400 to 1,600 mg taken by mouth daily in divided doses is a typical dose.334 Products that are standardized are typically standardized to 1% apigenin.335
Bath. No more than 50 g per one quart of water.336
What should you be aware of before using it?
Chamomile is safe for long-term use if you use it at recommended doses. At large doses it can cause vomiting.337
Don’t take it if you are taking warfarin or other anti-coagulants.338 If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking chamomile and discontinue use. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs known or suspected of increasing the risk of bleeding. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Don’t use the essential oil if you are pregnant as it is a uterine stimulant.
Allergic reactions are not unheard of. At least one case of anaphylactic shock has been reported.339 If you are allergic to members of the Compositae family (ragweed, daisies, aster, etc.) you have a greater chance of being allergic to chamomile. Some people are sensitive to topical chamomile. If you’re prone to dermatitis, try a little before using chamomile more extensively. Some people will get headaches from drinking the tea.
Avoid skin contact with the undiluted essential oil. Be careful not to get it into your nose or eyes. It is very strong.
Chamomile is supposed to make you drowsy. Don’t use it if you plan to drink alcohol—alcohol compounds its effects—or if you need to be alert. It may compound the effect of other sedative herbs. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Impurities (adulterants) in chamomile products are common. Get your chamomile from a reputable source.340
Though other members of the chamomile genus are thought to have medicinal properties, we don’t know much about them, their benefits, or their dangers. Traditional herbalists believe that some are damaging to the lining of the stomach and intestine.341 It is safest when using chamomile to stick with Chamaemelum nobile (Anthemis nobilis) and Matricaria recutita, because they have a known track record.
Note that wild chamomile, sometimes called dog chamomile or cotula, is a completely different plant with completely different properties.
Chilis
(See Capsicum)
Cinnamon Bark
Scientific name: Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum verum
Also known as true cinnamon, cinnamon
True Cinnamon, Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Left) and Cassia Cinnamon, C. aromaticum
Native to Sri Lanka and Southern India, the cinnamon tree grows from twenty to thirty feet tall. To process it, the thin, inner bark is stripped from the tree. This bark curls as it dries into “cinnamon sticks” or quills. Cinnamon is sold in quills or is ground for use as a spice or medicine. The medicinal properties of cinnamon come from the essential oil. This oil is prepared by crushing the bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then distilling out the oil. The essential oil of cinnamon bark is about 90% cinnamaldehyde, a yellow, oily liquid. Cinnamaldehyde, which has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, also contains a very concentrated smell and flavor of cinnamon.
The name cinnamon means “sweet wood.” This sweet wood has been a highly prized spice for millennia. Records of it date back to 2800 B.C.E. in China. Before modern refrigeration it was used to preserve meat. As a potent antimicrobial, it helped retard spoilage, and the distinctive taste helped mask the taste of meat that had started to turn.
Two common species of cinnamon are sold in grocery stores in the United States: Cinnamomum aromaticum and Cinnamomum zeylanicum. C. aromaticum, sometimes called cassia cinnamon or just cassia, is a different species from the same genus as true cinnamon. The two have somewhat different but overlapping medicinal properties. Cassia cinnamon, called ròu gùi in Chinese, is one of the fifty fundamental herbs of traditional Chinese medicine. In a typical grocery store, they will both be sold as simply “cinnamon,” but you can tell the difference by looking at the quills. True cinnamon sticks (C. zeylanicum) curl into a tube, while cassia sticks curl inward from both sides, like a scroll. In some studies, little or no difference was found between the effects of cassia and true cinnamon.342 In others, slight differences were found.343 Here we look at the medicinal effects of the Cinnamomum genus in general.
What is it good for?
One of the traditional uses for cinnamon is as a treatment for infection, particularly for fungal infections such as athlete’s foot. Honey and cinnamon together are a traditional remedy for fungal infections. The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory, for example, notes the powerful germicidal effects of cinnamon oil. Since 1918, laboratory research has amassed considerable evidence of these antimicrobial properties. One in vitro experiment demonstrated that the essential oil kills the fungi most likely to infect the respiratory tract of people.344 The essential oil also inhibits candida.345 Cinnamon has an antimicrobial effect, killing E. coli, when added as a preservative to food.346 It inhibits the growth of listeria.347 It has a broad antibacterial effect.348 It is also an antioxidant.349 The implications of these properties for healing infection, however, have not been tested.
Blood sugar control. Researchers are beginning to study the effects of cinnamon on blood sugar in people with type 2 diabetes. In test-tube studies, one of cinnamon’s most active compounds, methylhydroxy chalcone polymer (MHCP) increases glucose metabolism twenty-fold.350 Similarly, in a study of rats given Cinnamomum bark or extracts, a decrease in blood glucose levels was observed in a glucose tolerance test. Similar effects have been observed in human studies though results in people are mixed. A small study of sixty patients with type 2 diabetes in Pakistan found that one gram of cinnamon per day (split between two doses) lowered fasting glucose by 18–29%.351 Another study, however, found that fasting blood sugar levels did not change for postmenopausal diabetic women who took 1.5 g of cinnamon per day for six weeks.352 In the studies that found some effect, cassia cinnamon seemed to work a bit better than true cinnamon.353
Lowers blood pressure. This effect is seen in rat studies. Supplementing the diet with cinnamon lowered the systolic blood pressure both in spontaneously hypertensive rats and in rats whose blood pressure had been artificially elevated by feeding them sugar.354 The study was limited to lab animals and hasn’t been repeated, but the results are consistent with the fact that cinnamon contains oligomeric proanthocyanidin, which helps improve circulation.355
Cholesterol. The same Pakistani study that looked at blood sugar also found that as little as one gram per day of cinnamon lowered triglycerides by 23 to 30%, LDL cholesterol by 7 to 27%, and total cholesterol by 12 to 26% in people with type 2 diabetes.356
Alertness. A study conducted by a team at Wheeling Jesuit University found that the smell of cinnamon increased alertness and decreased frustration in drivers.357
How do you use it?
Decoction. A strong decoction brings out the best in cinnamon bark. Combine the herb with water at a 1:32 ratio. Bring the mixture to a boil slowly, boil for ten minutes, cool until warm, and strain. Pour additional water through the herb to return the volume to 32.358 MHCP, the compound that helps lower blood sugar and proanthocyanidin, an antioxidant, are both water soluble. Cinnamaldehyde, the essential oil in cinnamon that’s an irritant, and coumarin, a toxic component, are significantly less so. For that reason, the best cinnamon preparation for internal use is a decoction.359 You can also use the decoction on a pad for a compress.
Infused oil. The cinnamaldehyde in the essential oil contains the fungicidal properties of cinnamon. Cinnamaldehyde can only be extracted using oils. Powdered cinnamon infuses well in almond oil. Add the oil to the cinnamon to cover by roughly a half inch. Allow it to infuse in a warm place for fourteen days. Avoid taking oil infusions internally.360 Be cautious when using infused oils externally because they contain the more dangerous compounds in cinnamon. Try the infused oils on a small patch of skin before using them more widely.
Essential oil. Use the smell of the essential oil as an aid to alertness. Don’t inhale it directly from a bottle or diffuser, however, because it is a powerful irritant.
If you are going to use essential oil topically, you must dilute it. A dilution of 1:12 in a carrier oil is the absolute strongest you’d want to use on toenails. For use on skin, you’d want to dilute it much more than that, to roughly 1:50. Even then, patch test it on tough skin (like the heels of your feet) before using it anywhere else, and never use it on your face or other sensitive areas.
The risks of taking cinnamon oil internally vastly outweigh the benefits.
Dosage: How much do you use?
Less than 2 ounces of the essential oil can cause a serious toxic reaction.361 Too much can kill you. The risks of taking the essential oil internally outweigh the benefits. If, however, you do decide to take it, find yourself professional supervision, and don’t take more than .05 to .2 g per day.362
One gram (roughly ¼ to ½ teaspoon) of powdered cinnamon per day, split between two doses is enough to yield an effect on blood sugar.363 Don’t take more than 4 g per day.364
What should you be aware of before using it?
Cinnamon is on the FDA’s generally-recognized-as-safe list.365 But, again, this list assumes cinnamon in the kind and quantity used in cooking, not the essential oil, and not used in medicinal quantities.
Cinnamon oil is an irritant, particularly to mucous membranes.366 Cinnamon oil taken internally (sucked from a toothpick or finger) can cause local burning, nausea, and abdominal pain.367 The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory records an experiment in which a medium-sized dog was killed by six drachms (less than one ounce) of cinnamon oil. The dog apparently died from erosion of the lining of the gastrointestinal system.368
Take only water-extracted preparations internally. Oil extracted preparations contain cinnamaldehyde, which is an irritant, and coumarin, which causes cancer and liver damage.369
Allergic reactions are possible,370 as is contact dermatitis.371 It is possible to become sensitized to cinnamon over time.
Inhaling too much cinnamon dust has caused bronchitis in lab animals.372
Avoid medical quantities of cinnamon if you are pregnant. Pregnant lab animals fed cinnamon essential oil showed changes in the embryo.373
Decoctions of cinnamon have an effect on blood sugar. If you are diabetic, hypoglycemic, or have other blood sugar issues, check with your doctor before using cinnamon in medicinal quantities.374
Cinnamon flower is on the Commission E “Unapproved, Potentially Dangerous Herbs” list because of its likelihood to cause allergic reactions.375
Cloves
Scientific name: Syzygium aromaticum
Also known as Eugenia caryophyllata, Caryophyllus aromaticus, Eugenia aromatica, cinnamon nails, clove bud, ding heung, ding xiang, dinh huong, dok chan, eugenia bud, tropical myrtle
Cloves, Syzygium aromaticum
Cloves are native to Indonesia. The dried bud, which grows on an evergreen tree, is the part most often used medicinally. The buds are dried and sometimes ground into a powder before shipping. The essential oil is derived from either the leaves or the bud through a steam distillation process.376
Cloves’ aroma comes from its active ingredient, eugenol. Eugenol is also the active ingredient in clove essential oil, which can be comprised of as much as 95% eugenol.377 Commercial derivatives of eugenol have been used in analgesics and antiseptics. Eugenol is also, irrelevantly enough, an aphrodisiac for mice.378
What is it good for?
Mouth injuries. The Eclectic School recommended clove oil for this purpose. The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory notes that it is often used for toothache.379 Commission E recommends it as a topical antiseptic and anesthetic for mouth pain. The eugenol and salicylic acid in cloves have become commonly accepted treatments for mouth pain, not just among herbalists, but among Western dentists as well.380 This use is not surprising. Eugenol has antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and anesthetic properties.381 Test-tube studies have found that eugenol fights bacteria, viruses, and fungi, including some of the most common causes of skin infections.382 It is also an anesthetic, depressing the sensory receptors that perceive pain383 by means of a compound called beta-caryophyllene.384 Cloves also contain salicylic acid, a plant hormone and the active ingredient in aspirin.385 It is for this reason that dentists often use clove oil in fillings and dry socket preparations. Clinical research regarding cloves’ effectiveness and safety in dental uses is, however, surprisingly sparse. One study showed that clove oil worked as well as benzocaine for numbing a small area before injections.386 Other studies suggest the possibility of irritation. Beyond those few studies, we have mostly just lots of use.
Helps improve memory. It is said that the smell of clove oil can help improve alertness and strengthen memory. This use is, however, merely anecdotal at this point.
How do you use it?
Essential oil. There is no good reason to take clove oil internally and lots of good reasons not to (irritation, stomach upset, possible cytotoxicity). If you use clove for mouth injuries, spit; don’t swallow. Pure essential clove oil can be as much as 72–90% eugenol.387 Eugenol is an irritant. You should, therefore, dilute the oil with water to a 1 to 5% solution before using it as a mouth rinse.388 Store the oil in a dark bottle in a cool place.
Decoctions. Eugenol isn’t soluble in water, so decoctions are not your best bet.
Infused oil. Soak whole cloves in olive oil.389 Infused oil tends to be less irritating than essential oil. The problem is that you can’t be quite sure just how much of the active ingredient you have in the infused oil.
Commercial preparations of both the essential oil and other “clove oils” are available. Make sure that you know what you are getting when you buy clove oil. True clove oil is the essential oil of the clove extracted using superheated steam. Many preparations are diluted with other oils and still are called “clove oil.” The amount of dilution will tell you how much you need to further dilute the preparation before using it. You want no more than a 5% solution.
Whole clove. Some people just hold the whole clove in their mouth near the injury.390 We have no good research to help assess the benefits or risks of doing so.
Dosage: How much do you use?
How much should you dilute essential oil of clove before using it as a rinse? In point of fact, we aren’t sure at this point which dose best balances effectiveness with prudence. A typical recommendation is to use no stronger than a 5% solution.391 A 5% dilution would be 2.4 teaspoons of the oil in one cup of water. A more conservative dilution,392 .06%, would be roughly 2–3 drops of the oil in a cup of water. Some people use the full strength clove oil directly on their gums. Though the practice is widespread, evidence is beginning to come in that says that this old practice may not be advisable.
What should you be aware of before using it?
Cloves used as a spice are generally regarded as safe. The problems occur when using clove oil or cloves in medicinal quantities.
Most of the documented problems are irritations caused by ingesting too much of the oil.393 Anything more than minute amounts can cause stomach irritation.394 Children are more sensitive to cloves effects than adults.395
Recent in vitro (test-tube) research shows that the eugenol in cloves might be cytotoxic.396 The study has not yet been replicated, nor have the effects seen in the study been observed in human trials. Furthermore, after centuries of clove oil use, we have few or no documented cases of toxicity in adults. Even the FDA approves its use in small concentrations.397 The cytotoxicity demonstrated in the recent study, however, should probably not be completely ignored. Until more data comes in, you might consider avoiding undiluted clove oil applied directly. Instead, use diluted clove oil as a mouthwash: clove oil diluted to somewhere between .06 and 5% (depending on your tolerance for risk) rinse and spit.
Oil of cloves can be irritating to skin and mucous membranes. Diluting the oil can help reduce irritation.
Some people are allergic to cloves. Rashes, hives, shortness of breath, and anaphylaxis have been reported.398 If you experience any of these symptoms, discontinue use. If you experience breathing problems, get medical help immediately.
Don’t use it if you are taking antithrombotic drugs because cloves may increase their effect.399 If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking cloves and discontinue use. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with other herbs known or suspected of increasing the risk of bleeding. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Coltsfoot
Scientific name: Tussilago farfara
Also known as horseweed, horsebalm, ox balm, bullsfoot, hallfoot, fieldhove, pilewort, stone root, coughwort, cough plant, and horse-hoof, kuan dong hua.
Tussilago farfara
Coltsfoot, a perennial originally from Europe, now grows wild throughout the northeastern and midwestern United States, as well as southern Canada. It is part of the Compositae family, a large family that also contains daisies, asters, sunflowers, zinnia, dandelions, and even thistles and ragweed. The flowers are the principle part used, but the leaves also have medicinal value.
Coltsfoot has a long history of being used for coughs. In fact, the scientific name, Tussilago, comes from the Latin word for cough. Some traditions say coltsfoot is best for conditions with lots of mucus; others recommend it for dry coughs. Though they may not agree on the particulars, people on at least four continents for at least twenty centuries have been saying that coltsfoot works for throat ailments. Many European cough remedies feature coltsfoot. The Iroquois used an infusion of the roots as a cough remedy.400 Greek physicians recommended smoking coltsfoot for asthma, advice that is now considered highly ill-advised. In France in the eighteenth century, apothecaries would paint a picture of a colt’s foot on a shingle and hang it outside when they had coltsfoot cough remedies for sale.401 In China, it’s called kuan dong hua, and it’s used for chronic coughs with lots of phlegm. It is said to force rising lung qi to descend.
What is it good for?
Throat conditions, including coughs, bronchitis, hoarseness, sore throat, strep, and asthma. The traditional evidence for this use is strong, existing wherever coltsfoot grows. In fact, the herb has been introduced around the world because of its medicinal properties. The Eclectic School and most of the traditional herbalists recommended it for this purpose. The herb contains mucilage, a substance that coats and soothes mucous membranes, perhaps even shielding them from further infection.402 It soothes coughs and helps them become more productive. The active ingredients have antioxidative,403 anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties.404 Test-tube analysis shows that coltsfoot has antimicrobial properties and is effective against Staphylococcus aureus,405 a cause of pneumonia and other upper respiratory infections.406 Clinical trials and human studies, even animal studies, are almost nonexistent, however.
Skin inflammations. A poultice of coltsfoot leaves is sometimes used for skin inflammations, including insect bites and burns.407 This tradition doesn’t have nearly the attestation that the throat remedies do, but given that initial research shows anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties, the use may not be totally unfounded.408 The leaves of coltsfoot also contain tannins.
How do you use it?
Infusions. Coltsfoot is typically prepared as either an infusion or decoction of either the flowers or the leaves. Consult a professional for more information about how to minimize the dangers of using coltsfoot. (See the “What should you be aware of before using it” section for more information.)
Tinctures. Tinctures aren’t recommended if you want the mucilage of the herb to remain intact.409 Smoking coltsfoot, a traditional way of using the herb, also destroys mucilage.410 Inhaling the steam doesn’t work either.
Dosage: How much do you use?
Don’t use coltsfoot longer than 4–6 weeks per year411 Consult a professional for guidance in finding a proper dosage of coltsfoot.
What should you be aware of before using it?
One would think that an herb that had centuries of history of use would have centuries of history of contraindications as well. That’s not true with coltsfoot. For centuries, it was used without restriction. Only recently have scientists discovered that coltsfoot contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), which can cause liver cancer and liver failure.412 So far most of the evidence has come from animal research and studies of other herbs that contain PAs, but those studies are conclusive enough that regulatory agencies are beginning to take notice. The problem is that PAs cause damage that only shows up in a liver biopsy or autopsy. By the time you have your first symptom, significant harm has already been done. The FDA has classified coltsfoot as an herb of “undefined safety.” Canadian and Australian authorities have banned the herb outright.413 Germany has set up a web of restrictions that greatly limits its use.414
The risk may be able to be mitigated somewhat through proper preparation of the herb and careful dosage. It may also be mitigated by using coltsfoot as a gargle rather than a tea. The wisest course of action, however, is to seek professional guidance if you want to take coltsfoot.
Don’t take coltsfoot at all if:
You have any kind of liver disorder, take several kinds of medication (which are cleared through the liver), or if you drink heavily.415 Also you shouldn’t take it in conjunction with any other herb or drug known to affect liver function.416 (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
You have heart problems.417
