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It has been shown that neglecting the socially constructed concepts underlying the structure and interplay of institutions can lead to misleading conclusions. To provide reliable international comparisons, socially constructed concepts must be deconstructed and decontextualized so that comparable functions—which are necessary for solving a problem—can be identified. However, how can we overcome such problems in an evidence-based approach? In most cases, a functional equivalence approach is sought to overcome the problem. I argue that, to compare VET programs, we must also understand their conceptual equivalents.

The method of functional analysis is a method of relationalization for the purpose of making comparisons. The concept of functional equivalence lends the method a sort of guarantee of reality (Luhmann, 2010; Schriewer, 2000). Based on the deductive, nomological Hempel-Oppenheim model (Hempel and Oppenheim, 1948), Luhmann (2010) shows the extent to which the concept of functional equivalence enables epistemological extensions to be constructed and leads to a further-reaching approach to comparisons. For Luhmann, the key lever is being able to distinguish between the system and the environment. “A more detailed analysis must distinguish between propositions regarding hypothetically assumed real relationships, such as the causal processes existing in reality, and propositions regarding the academically constructed explanatory relationship, namely the relationship between explanadum and explanas” (Luhmann, 2010, p. 10[12]). The foundations of an expansion of the interest in comparisons can be empirically tested beyond the mere testing of simple relationships deduced from theory. Therefore, “the prerequisite for this is the assumption that problems and problem-related functional equivalences are not only generated by academic theory, but are already present in social reality itself, i.e. they can be discovered or queried” (Luhmann, 2010, p. 17[13]).

Thus, the method of comparison with functional equivalents is theory based. This approach starts with a common problem and formulates the question to be solved; it defines the criteria for the comparison and searches for functionally comparable solutions. It is not a matter of a digital decision of function is fulfilled or function is not fulfilled but of the extent to which the aspects correspond. Figure 1 illustrates a functional equivalent.

Figure 1: Theoretical Concept of a Functional Equivalent Showing Distinct Treatments (i.e., the Solution for a Fundamental Problem) and Having the Same Function

Rageth and Renold (2019) have shown how the function of coordinating actors from the education and employment system through a VET process can take on different forms in the curriculum design, application, and feedback phases and can thus be used to develop a theoretically based typology of VET programs. The coordination function in the individual countries that are included in the comparison can take on very different forms, as the KOF Education-Employment Linkage Index studies have shown (Renold et al., 2015, 2016, 2017). Furthermore, Rageth (2018) shows that different empirical types of such coordination exist.