Читать книгу An Introduction to Intercultural Communication - Fred E. Jandt - Страница 50

It is estimated that as of 2017 there were 984 million land line telephones—a reduction from over 1 billion in earlier years. Alexander Graham Bell expected the telephone to be more of a broadcasting medium, more like what radio would become. Well into the 20th century, telephone executives believed the telephone was primarily a medium for business and actually discouraged “socializing” by telephone.

Using the telephone in intercultural interactions has the barriers of the lack of contextual cues other than those related to voice. For this reason, it may be the conversation openings that are significant in establishing the first impression from which the relationship develops. An opening sequence that violates a cultural expectation may lead the parties to develop negative views and attitudes toward each other (Pavlidou, 2006). Later language misunderstandings, such as the meanings of certain words, idioms, and humor, can exacerbate the problem.

What is commonly called a cell phone in the United States is called a mobile in the United Kingdom, cellular in Latin America, keitai (portable) in Japan, shou-ji (hand machine) in China, nalle (teddy bear) in Sweden, Pelephone (wonder phone) in Israel, and handy in Germany. Smartphones with Internet access and apps are common worldwide. By whatever name, the estimated number of mobile phones in 2017 was 7.8 billion—more than the world’s population (see Figure 1.2). Many emerging and developing countries simply skipped developing land line capacity. Because the United States relied heavily on land lines, mobile phone adoption was slower in the United States than in other countries. In Africa and Asia, where land lines were not as common, and in Europe, where mobile phone service is less expensive than land lines, mobile phone adoption was faster (Ling, 2005). In 2005, for example, 95% of European teenagers had mobile phones while 45% of U.S. teenagers did (Ling & Baron, 2007).

Figure 1.2 Land Line and Mobile Phones in Use, 2017

Source: Central Intelligence Agency (2020).

*Penetration is the percentage of the total population.

Text messaging is the more commonly used term in North America, the United Kingdom, and the Philippines for what other countries are more likely to refer to as Short Message Service (SMS). Shuter and Chattopadhyay (2010) compared texting in the United States and India and found a definite relationship to each culture’s norms. For example, consider where texting is done. Consistently, people in the United States are more likely to send and read messages in public social settings like restaurants, shops, and movie theaters. Perhaps because of the area where texting is done, people in the United States text when they are with strangers and acquaintances or friends but much less with family members. Indians text when they are with family members or boyfriends or girlfriends. People in the United States are more likely to consider it impolite to text in a classroom, in a movie theater, at dinner, and while conversing with others, especially with loud text alerts. Indians are more likely to find as impolite swearing in texts. Shuter and Chattopadhyay conclude that the social use of texting is guided by forces deeply embedded in each culture.

Yoojung Kim, Dongyoung Sohn, and Sejung Choi (2011) compared U.S. and Korean college student SMS use and found clear cultural connections. In both countries, the reasons for using SMS were the same: seeking friends, social support, information, entertainment, and convenience. The difference was that, for students in the United States, socially close others (e.g., family members, close friends) were only a minor part of their online social networks, while families and close friends were 70% of the Koreans’ networks. The researchers conclude that students in the United States tend to focus more on entertaining themselves by making new friends through SMS, while Korean students tend to focus more on existing relationships with socially close others from whom they can acquire useful information and social support. Abeele and Roe (2011) found a similar pattern comparing Flemish and U.S. new college students. Flemish students were more likely to text and instant message precollege friends, while U.S. students were more likely to text and instant message new friends.