Читать книгу An Introduction to Intercultural Communication - Fred E. Jandt - Страница 86

Asian-American groups in the United States have experienced stereotyping, which, although often positive, has impeded communication. The term Asian-American was created by University of California, Los Angeles, historian Yuji Ichioka in the late 1960s to refer to all people of Asian descent in the belief that all Asians shared a common history and struggle in the United States. And up to the 1970s, Asian-Americans were largely born in the United States. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abandoned the old policy of immigration quotas for each country and established a new system giving preference to relatives of U.S. residents. That change resulted in large numbers of Asians immigrating to the United States between 1981 and 1989. The label Asian-American includes more than 30 ethnicities, with family origins extending from East Asia and Southeast Asia to the Indian subcontinent as well as the Philippines and Indonesia. The continued use of the term Asian-American contributes to a stereotype of some 17 million people of Asian ancestry as a single community (5.6% of the population).

Some 51% of Asian-Americans have a bachelor’s degree, compared to 30% of the general population. Census data show that Asian-Americans have the highest median annual income of $73,060 (compared to $53,600 for all U.S. households). During the civil rights era of the 1960s, Asian-Americans became associated with the stereotype of the “model minority,” who achieved success through hard work, perseverance, silent stoicism, strong family ties, and strong support for education. Asian-Americans of all groups are most often portrayed in the press as industrious and intelligent; enterprising and polite, with strong values; and successful in schools and business and in science and engineering. This stereotype seemed to continue the belief that any group can achieve the American Dream if its members “just work hard enough.”

A recent study demonstrated that the model minority stereotype is very much accepted (Zhang, 2010). Cultivation theory links media content with the acquisition of stereotypes (Perse, 2001). Using cultivation theory as a theoretical framework, Zhang (2010) showed that in the United States, Asians are perceived as most likely to achieve academic success, are most likely to be perceived as nerds, are perceived as most likely to be left out, and are one of two groups people are least likely to initiate friendship with.

Abercrombie & Fitch (A&F) pulled a line of T-shirts after complaints. The T-shirts showed Asian cartoon characters. Printed on the shirts were ads for hypothetical businesses: “Rick Shaw’s Hoagies and Grinders. Order by the foot. Good meat. Quick feet” and “Wong Brothers Laundry Service—Two Wongs Can Make It White.” A senior manager at A&F said, “These graphic T-shirts were designed with the sole purpose of adding humor and levity to our fashion line.”

Asian American Resource Workshop

But, Asian-American high school students of all backgrounds complain that teachers often counsel Asian-Americans to go into math and sciences. Some teachers respond that this is done so that immigrants will not have to contend with language problems. Asian-Americans argue that some teachers continue to do this even to those who are fluent in English and that the reason why teachers do this is that Asians are perceived as not being free thinking or extroverted.

California public universities are not allowed to use racial criteria in admissions. Berkeley’s enrollments in 2017 were 40.5% Asian-American. Some allege that Ivy League universities limit the number of Asian-Americans they admit. A controversial study of admissions data from 10 unnamed selective colleges concluded that Asian-Americans need 140 more SAT points than Whites for admission and Blacks need 310 fewer points for admission (Espenshade & Radford, 2009). In 2014, Students for Fair Admissions filed suit against Harvard on behalf of Asian-Americans who had been rejected over its affirmative action admission policy alleging Harvard discriminates by requiring higher standards for Asian-American students and rating them poorly on personal characteristics. A federal judge ruled against the plaintiff in 2019, writing, “The use of race benefits certain racial and ethnic groups that would otherwise be underrepresented at Harvard and is therefore neither an illegitimate use of race or reflective of racial prejudice” (Gluckman, 2019, p. A18; see also Anderson, 2019). The case will be appealed.

Amy Chua and Jed Rubenfeld (2014) assume that some specific social habits communicated across group members and transmitted through generations may predispose those groups to success or failure. We might label these social habits as cultural traditions or traits. Chua and Rubenfeld contend in a controversial book that Asians, Cubans, Jews, Indians, Nigerians, Mormons, Iranians, and Lebanese are superior in succeeding in the United States because they share three cultural traits: a superiority complex, insecurity, and impulse control.

Calcutta-born journalism professor Suketu Mehta (2014) charges that such claims of superiority for “model minorities” is simply a new form of racism. The implication is that other cultures are inferior and unable to succeed. Mehta also contends that such claims now based on culture follow a century of discredited claims of superiority based on race, class, IQ, and religion.