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The individual or personal resources of parents include economic well-being, knowledge (e.g., of child development), interpersonal skills, physical health, mental health and psychopathology (e.g., depression). Illustrative of individual resources are psychological and emotional qualities that are components of parents’ competence or incompetence as socializers and caregivers for children. Parental competence, a complex array of individual resources (among other resources), is composed of such qualities as psychological maturity, empathy, warmth, secure self-image, good mental health, parental self-efficacy, parental satisfaction, capacity to express affection, and ability to use firm, rational control with the young (Bush & Peterson, 2008, 2013; Katsikitis et al., 2013; Glatz & Trifan, 2019; Liu et al., 2012; Peterson & Bush, 2013, 2015). Such personal competencies function as potential resources that may empower parents to marshal their resources and manage stress.

The contrasting personal qualities, or negative and positive personal resources, shape the psychological experiences of parents. Adults who have psychological or emotional problems, such as extensive depression, anger, and anxiety, often are at risk for having these personal issues becoming evident within the parent–child relationship and increasing the vulnerability of parents for higher levels of parenting stress. Parents who are self-preoccupied, depressed, highly anxious, distant, hostile, or abusers of substances are less likely to dealing effectively with stressors or crisis events (Biondic, Wiener, Martinussen, 2019; Delvecchio, Di Riso, Chessa, Salcuni, Mazzeschi, & Laghezza, 2014; Gavazzi, 2011; Hanington, Heron, Stein, & Ramchandani, 2012; Johansson et al., 2017; Holden, 2015). Highly stressed parents also are less likely to demonstrate the patience, sensitivity, and responsiveness that is needed to raise children effectively (Bush & Peterson, 2008; Crnic et al., 2005; Deater-Deckard, 2004; Lee et al., 2018).