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1 The manusript has been finished in February 2017.

2 I would like to thank Lena Helmer for her support in compiling and visualising the data used in this article.

3 Here, the percentage of ‘bad thing’ is subtracted from the percentage of ‘good thing’ answers in order to obtain a measure of net support.

4 Le Nouvel Observateur, 24 August 2016: Mélenchon veut faire de 2017 un ‘référendum’ sur l’Europe (URL: http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/topnews/20160824.REU9926/melenchon-veut-faire-de-2017-un-referendum-sur-l-europe.html).

5 For a comparison between these two French referenda on Europe, see Vassallo 2008.

6 Experts had to evaluate the “overall orientation of the party leadership towards European integration” in a given year and locate the party on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 “strongly opposed” to 7 “strongly in favour”.

7 See his speech at the Humboldt University in Berlin on 10 January 2017 (URL: https://plone.rewi.hu-berlin.de/de/lf/oe/whi/forum-constitutionis-europas/2017/rede-macron)