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Upon foliar application, TiO₂NPs were taken up by leaves and were found in epidermis, parenchyma, and vascular tissues in both apoplastic and symplastic compartments (Larue et al. 2014). Several mechanisms have been proposed for underlying nanoparticle internalization. Both stomatal and cuticular pathways were suggested. TiO₂NPs were found at stomatal openings, in sub‐stomatal chambers and vacuoles of guard cells (Kurepa et al. 2010; Larue et al. 2014). In addition, TiO₂NPs were also reported to be entrapped in the cuticle thereby damaging it and the cell walls (Larue et al. 2014). Absorption through cell membranes probably occurred through endocytosis and TiO₂NPs were observed in endosomes (Kurepa et al. 2010; Larue et al. 2012a).

Figure 2.1 Three main ways of TiO₂ nanoparticle applications with their differences.