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NO is involved in advanced signal mechanisms, as well as synergistic collaboration with phytohormones and alternative secondary signal molecules, to confer stress tolerance in plants. NO has been linked to a variety of phytohormones, including gibberellins, brassinosteroids, and ABA. The interaction of NO with phytohormones has been studied in a variety of ways. NO and plant hormones work together to regulate a wide range of physiological responses in plants. By activating Ca²⁺ and calcium‐dependent protein kinase via downstream signals, NO and auxin promote root development (Pagnussat et al. 2002). Similarly, the interaction of NO and auxin promotes Cd tolerance in the rosid dicot genus Truncatula by reducing auxin degradation (Xu et al. 2010). Furthermore, there is a growing of evidence pointing to the effect of NO in reducing serious metal toxicity (He et al. 2012; Yuan and Huang 2016; Wei et al. 2020). Iron deficiency, on the other hand, stimulates the assembly of auxin and increases NO levels, thereby upregulating ferric-chelate enzyme activity in Arabidopsis.

Various studies have emphasized the role of cytokinins in plant organic process processes, cellular division, and leaf senescence. Cytokinins and NO interact in a variety of ways, including synergistic and antagonistic responses. NO and cytokinins interact synergistically in response to drought stress causing leaf senescence, cellular division, and photosynthetic activity (Mishina et al. 2007; Shao et al. 2010; Shen et al. 2013). NO signaling via gibberellins induces multiple physiological responses in plants, including seed germination, root growth (Lozano-Juste and León 2011; Sanz et al. 2015), photosynthetic activity, and nutrient use potency. NO and gibberellins also have an antagonistic relationship because NO suppresses gibberellic acid signal events and signal transduction by promoting the accumulation of DELLA proteins (Asgher et al. 2017). Wu et al. (2014) discovered that gibberellins work antagonistically with NO to manage root growth in Arabidopsis at low and high P concentrations. Likewise, NO production is required for ABA-induced stomatal closure in guard cells (Neill et al. 2002). The role of NO–ABA interactions in drought stress and UV-B radiation stress has been well established in controlling stomatal closure and inhibitor defense machinery (Neill et al. 2008; Tossi et al. 2009).

Several studies have shown that ABA and NO interact in plant physiological responses and signaling mechanisms (Castillo et al. 2015; Asgher et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2020). Furthermore, NO and ethylene have an antagonistic interaction because NO inhibits ethylene synthesis and action by inhibiting leaf senescence and ripening (Leshem et al. 1998; Manjunatha et al. 2010). However, serious physiological responses to NO interactions with ethylene are being studied in Arabidopsis, Cucumis, and Nicotiana (Ederli et al. 2006). As a result, it is clear that the interaction of NO with phytohormones in abiotic stress tolerance is supported by a variety of evidence. Consider the interaction of NO with various hormones such as brassinosteroids, jasmonates, and polyamines (Liu et al. 2014; Lau et al. 2021; Nahar et al. 2016). The interaction of NO with hormones activates the advanced signal cascade, inducing a variety of responses to environmental stresses.

Despite the fact that there is conflicting evidence regarding the interference mechanism of NO with hormones, future research on the mechanisms of interaction of multiple hormones with NO and their potential pathways is required to be addressed in terms of stress responses and plant growth traits (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 The physiological role of NO in plants under abiotic stress.

Plant species	Stressors	Physiological role	Reference
Wheat	Drought	Enhanced drought tolerance	Garcia-Mata and Lamattina 2001
Alianthus altissima	Drought	Enhanced antioxidant defense mechanism, proline and osmolyte metabolism	Filippou et al. 2014
Wheat	Drought	Enhanced seedling growth, high relative water content, mitigation of oxidative stress	Tian and Lei 2006
Crambe abyssinica	Drought	Enhanced NR activity and suppressed ROS and malondialdehyde content	Batista et al. 2018
Arabidopsis	Drought	Early drought responsive processes along with translational and transcriptional reprogramming	Ederli et al. 2019
Bean	UV-B radiation	Decreased H2O2 content, enhanced leaf growth, elevated antioxidant enzyme activity	Shi et al. 2005
Alfalfa	Salinity	Enhanced plant growth and seed germination	Wang and Han 2007
Chickpea	Salinity	Stimulates plant development and antioxidant enzyme activity	Ahmad et al. 2016
Avicennia marina	Salinity	Enhanced photosynthetic activity	Shen et al. 2018
Zea mays	Salinity	Enhanced activity of tonoplast H+- ATPase and gene for Na+/H+ antiporter	Zhang et al. 2006
Cucumis sativus	Salinity	Spermidine accumulation has increased	Fan et al. 2013a
Sunflower	Salinity	Seedling growth is improved, and antioxidant activity is increased and reduced ROS formation	Kaur and Bhatia 2016; Arora and Bhatia 2017
Jatropha	Salinity	Improved seedling growth with less oxidative stress and lower toxic ion deposition	Gadelha et al. 2017
Crocus sativus	Salinity	Increased growth due to osmolyte accumulation and antioxidant enzyme activity, as well as increased secondary metabolite synthesis	Babaei et al. 2020
Pea	Salinity	Enhanced chlorophyll content, nutrient uptake, and antioxidant enzyme activity	Dadasoghi et al. 2020
Mustard	Salinity	Increased synthesis of antioxidant enzymes, enzymes for N metabolism, photosynthesis and respiration, decreased H2O2, MDA content, and PCD	Sami et al. 2021
Vigna radiata	Salinity	Increased activity of proline, total amino acids, reducing sugars, modulates antioxidant enzyme activities, physiological traits	Roychoudhary et al. 2021
Tomato	Salinity	Enhanced activities of NO and ROS	Liu et al. 2015a
Spinach	Salinity	Enhanced secondary metabolites and activity of antioxidant enzymes	Du et al. 2015
Oryza sativa	As toxicity	Enhanced root growth and formation, reduced ROS generation, and As accumulation	Kushwaha et al. 2019
Arachis hypogea	Cd toxicity	Increased antioxidant enzyme activities, reduced ROS and Cd accumulation	Yuanjie et al. 2019
Arabidopsis	Cu toxicity	Improved cell viability	Peto et al. 2013
Tomato	Cd toxicity	Enhanced water uptake, reduced Cd uptake and oxidative damage	Ahmad et al. 2018
Cowpea, rye grass	Al toxicity	Enhanced chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activities	Khairy et al. 2016; Sadeghipour 2016
Lablab purpureus L.	High temperature	Reduced lipid peroxidation and increased antioxidant activity, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic	Rai et al. 2018
Soybean	High temperature	Modulates activity of ascorbate peroxidase and peroxidase, reduced lipid peroxidation	Vital et al. 2019
Tomato	Low temperature	Enhanced germination, seedling root and shoot length, sugar content	Amooaghaie and Nikzad 2013
Juglans regia	Chilling stress	Enhanced chlorophyll, glutathione, and sugar content, reduced lipid peroxidation	Dong et al. 2018
Brassica	Herbicidal toxicity	Increase in NO content, low ROS formation, improved antioxidant activities	Hasanuzzman et al. 2018