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BRAZIL

OF all the Latin American lands, Brazil has had the greatest and most thorough miscegenation. This began about 1500 entirely with Indian women. The heat, the deadly insects, the fever, and the savage warfare made the region quite unfit for European women.

The Indians with whom the Portuguese amalgamated had, it seems clear, a Negro strain. Negro and Negro-Indian peoples, without a doubt, had been living in the tropical belt of the New World ages before the coming of Columbus. Pigafetti who made the first voyage around the world with Magellan and touched southern Brazil in 1519, or nineteen years before the arrival of the African Negro as a slave, says that the inhabitants of southern Brazil had “short and woolly hair,”¹ a characteristic of Negroid peoples.

The offspring of the Portuguese and the Indians were called mamelucos and with the females of these the incoming Portuguese of the next generation intermarried. In 1538, came the Negroes from Africa, and with these the Portuguese, who were already used to Negro concubines in Europe, intermixed freely.

The Negroes came from regions as far away as Madagascar, Mozambique, India, and Malaya. The great majority came from the African west coast, which was only 1600 miles away, and were principally Yimbas, Dahomeyans, Hausas, Tapas, Mandingoes, Angolas and Minas. Certain of them as the Hausas were Mohammedans, and were skilled artists and weavers, and for that time, good farmers, and iron-workers.

The most eagerly sought of the black women were the Minas, who were tall, with frizzly hair, velvety skins, full bosoms, and walked with the rhythm and verve of primitive Africa. Slave hunters were given special orders to capture them, and when they arrived in Bahia, then the capital of Brazil, there was keen bidding for them by the richer colonists, who installed them in many a Casa Grande, where they became the mothers of the future masters and mistresses of the plantations.

Since the Portuguese were already mixed, they were particularly liberal in the matter of race. Concubinage was common and the only bar to free marriage between white and mulatto was not race, but European birth. The man born in Portugal, or Filho de Reino—Son of the Kingdom—considered himself far superior to the creole, or the one born in the colony. Was he not belonging to a culture that was infinitely superior to wild and primitive Brazil? It was not a question of color at all because a mulatto born in Portugal, by sheer virtue of his birth there considered himself, and was so regarded, as superior to even an unmixed white who had been born in the New World. Writing as late as 1830, Debret says that the Portuguese-born “disdained to admit a difference of color in the native-born Brazilian and regarded the white native-born Brazilian as a mulatto.”² In 1850, so serious was this that the white creoles rose in revolt.

Favored by its proximity to the African coast, the slave-trade of Brazil increased to such extent that the Negroes quickly outnumbered the whites. In two years alone, 1583-1585, 14,000 Negroes were brought in.

In less than a century, the Negroes had become so numerous that they provided the balance of power, whereby the Portuguese were able to defeat their Dutch neighbors, who had swarmed into the country from the West Indies, Guiana, and Holland. Led by the renowned Henri Dias, a full-blooded black,³ the Negroes defeated Prince Maurice of Nassau, and broke the power of the Dutch in Brazil, which in turn had its repercussions in New Netherland, now New York. In this war, some of the blacks reached the rank of Captam-Mor, a title formerly reserved for the upper class.

The power of the Negroes in Northern Brazil, especially the warlike Hausas, grew so great that breaking away from the whites they founded republics of their own some of which lasted for fifty years, and of which the most noted was Palmares founded in 1673.⁴ Since this region is rich in gold and diamonds, and produced sugar, tobacco, cotton, and still later much seringa, or rubber, some of the Negroes grew wealthy and powerful, having vast plantations with hundreds of Negro and Indian slaves.

The daughters of these rich Negroes were eagerly sought in marriage by incoming Europeans—Portuguese, Spaniards, Frenchmen, Hollanders, and Germans. Richest of these Negro, zambo, and mulatto people were those in the province of Ceara, who were the founders of the great seringa, or rubber industry. As Bruce says, “The Cearenses, a blending of the mame-lukes with the mulattoes, have given Brazil her great seringa industry. It was the people from Ceara who penetrated the forests of the Amazon and gave the world its first seringa supply. It is the Cearenses and their neighbors, the Paraenses, that work these seringaes today.⁵

The Negroes continued to increase until in 1768 in Bahia, they outnumbered the whites seventeen to one, and spreading north and southeast of this province they soon formed the principal population of the states of Parahyba, Pernambuco, Ceara, Minaes Geraes, and Rio de Janeiro. In 1830, according to Walsh, the mulattoes and other mixed-bloods of Brazil alone numbered 2,500,000 as against 850,000 whites.

XIII. Rich Brazilian mulatto woman (third from left) with daughter (Second from left), leaving for the country with her maid (fourth from left) and her servants. (Debret).

In 1825, the population of Rio de Janeiro was estimated at 135,000 of which 105,000 were blacks; 25,000 white or near-white; 4,000 foreigners; and the remaining 1,000 gypsies, Indians, and caboclos (mixed Indian and white). In 1828, Rio de Janeiro alone imported 45,000 blacks and when the foreign-slave trade neared its abolition in 1860, the rush to bring them in increased. Walsh, who visited Rio de Janeiro in the 1820’s says, “My eye really was so familiarized to black visages that the occurrence of a white face on the streets in some parts of the town struck me as a novelty.”⁶

Mathison, writing in 1821, says that the first thing that struck his eye in Brazil was the preponderance of Negroes. There was at the time, he says, 600,000 mulattoes, free blacks, and other mixed bloods; 1,800,000 slaves; and 500,000 Indians. As regards the social status of the mixed bloods, he said, “Mulattoes are eligible to any offices in church and state; and freedom once obtained the color of the skin is reckoned no ground of distinction.” He said he saw Negro army officers over white soldiers.⁷

Robertson reported similarly of Rio de Janeiro in the 1830’s: “So great is the preponderance of the colored population over the white that in the streets you can scarcely believe you’re not in a colony of blacks and mulattoes.”⁸ Gardner said that when he entered Rio in the 1840’s, “scarcely a white face was to be seen. The shops … seemed to be attended by mulattoes, or by Portuguese of nearly as dark a hue.”⁹

The Jesuits, who were once a power in Brazil, and had great plantations and mines, tried to establish racial lines but were severely reprimanded by the King of Portugal who ordered them to abandon their high-flown ideas of superiority. The plantations of these priests were more systematically conducted than those by the laity and the slaves were by all accounts better treated. In the matter of cohabiting with the Negro woman, however, the clergy was of no better morality than the rest. The Benedictine and Carmelite monks on the great slave estates had many mulatto children. They were, as Erasmus might have remarked, fathers by name and fathers in deed. Henry Koster wrote, “The conduct of the younger members of the communities of regular clergy is well known not to be by any means correct; the vows of celibacy are not strictly adhered to. This circumstance decreases the respect with which these men might otherwise be treated upon their own estates and increases much the licentiousness of the women.”¹⁰

Caldcleugh says similarly, “The conduct of the clergy, as more is expected from them than the other classes, is certainly the most reprehensible.

One of them, a Padre Canto, had four mulatto sons, who following the mother, according to the custom of the slave countries, were slaves. He sold two of them and the others performed the pleasant filial act of carrying their father about in a sedan chair.”¹¹

As regards the clergy in the mining districts, he said they lived “very dissolute lives … generally their conduct to their slaves is sensual to the extreme to one sex and cruel to the other … They pursue a system of unrestrained licentiousness.”¹²

Koster reported that he saw “many light-colored mulattoes” on the plantations owned by the priests but that such were usually married to “a person of darker hue” to prevent the slave from becoming too white.

Later when the white woman came to Brazil, there were in the interior many independent planters, who lived like feudal lords on great estates, rearing families of white and mulatto children. Mathison who visited Brazil in the 1820’s saw many such, and Walsh tells of visiting the home of a white Brazilian in the interior, whose family “consisted of two mothers, a black and a white, and twelve children of all sizes, sexes, and colors; some with woolly hair and dusky faces, some with sallow skin and long black hair,” the members of which “exhibited in their dances painful indications of licentious habits.”¹³ Families thus mixed were far from rare. Incest of the white master with his attractive mulatto daughter was not uncommon either. Sometimes when the master died, his white widow, alone in the woods, took a capable Negro or mulatto as her “paramour and partner.”¹⁴ Walsh also says that he saw a woman with triplets one of which was white, one brown, and the other black.¹⁵

Codman tells of a poor Frenchman, one Expilly, who solved his economic problem thus: Having only two slaves, a man and a woman, he, himself, had a child by the Negro woman, while he made his white wife have a child by the Negro man, then selling the two mulatto children he used the money to set himself up in business.¹⁶

One Englishman, finding that his children by black women turned out well and fetched a good price set himself up as a stallion, having as many as he could then selling his own offspring as soon as they were old enough to leave their mothers.¹⁷

On the estates, the mulatto children of the white master ate at the same table with the white legitimate ones. They were taught by the same priests, and received the same respect from the slaves as the white children. In the interior, the only female companion of the white wife, was often the Negro woman to whom she gave her children to be nursed. However, some of the white wives grew exceedingly jealous of the black concubines and knocked out their teeth, had them lashed, and even had their breasts torn out or burnt with hot irons.

The slave in Brazil, had by unwritten law, many of the rights of a freeman. He could educate himself, and was urged to do so. He could defend himself against his master, or any white man; he had little fear of being separated from his family. He had every chance of becoming a free man, and it is said that he could take himself before the courts, have himself valued, and then offer to buy himself, which could not be refused. This latter, however, is denied by certain writers, who say it was merely a custom. Finally, he could be legally married, and could defend his wife’s chastity against a white man.¹⁸

“The slaves of Brazil,” said Burton, “are regularly married according to the forms of the Catholic Church; the banns are published in the same manner as those of free persons. The masters encourage marriages among the slaves for it is from these lawful connections that they can expect to increase the number of their creoles.” They were given the sacrament at marriage, also.

Socially, an unmixed black was in the lowest caste, but he was free to marry any color of woman he wished. A mulatto or an octoroon were regarded as his superior but if the latter were slaves, even though they were indistinguishable from white, he could buy them. Ewbank wrote of the slaves he saw at one sale. “They were of every shade from deep Angola-jet to white, or nearly white, as one young woman facing me appeared. She was certainly superior in mental organization to some of the buyers. The anguish with which she watched the proceedings, and waited her turn to be brought out, exposed, examined, and disposed of, was distressing.”¹⁹

As for mulattoes they were often regarded as white. Sir Richard Burton wrote, “Here all men, especially free men, who are not black, are white; and often a man is officially white, but naturally almost a Negro. This is directly opposed to the system of the United States, where all not unmixed white, are black.”²⁰

As regards marriage between colored and white there were no legal restrictions whatever, and few social ones. Henry Koster, who lived in Brazil in the 1800’s, says, “The colonists married the women of mixed caste, owing to the impossibility of obtaining those of their own color; and the frequency of the custom, and the silence of the laws upon the subject, removed all idea of degradation in thus connecting themselves. Still the European notions of superiority were not entirely laid aside and these caused the passing of some regulations by which colored persons were not to enjoy certain privileges …” But these laws were never observed. Koster adds that while “the degraded state of the people of color in the British colonies is most lamentable, in Brazil, even the trifling regulations which exist against them remain unattended to. A mulatto enters into holy orders or is appointed a magistrate, his papers stating him to be a white man, but his appearance plainly denoting him the contrary. In conversing on one occasion with a man of color who was in my service, I asked him if a certain Capitam-mor (a high rank usually held by the nobility) was not a mulatto; he answered, ‘he was, but is not now.’ I begged him to explain when he added, ‘Can a Capitam-mor be a mulatto?’ ”²¹

Marriage between an upper-class white man and colored woman was considered unusual only when the woman was black, or nearly black, but not with the intent of lowering the man in the estimation of others. “Indeed, the remark is only made if the person is a planter of any importance and the woman of color is decidedly of dark color, for even a considerable tinge will pass for white; if the white man belongs to the lower orders the woman is not accounted as being unequal to him in rank unless she is nearly black. The European adventurers often marry in this manner, which generally occurs when the woman has a dower. The rich mulatto families are often glad to dispose of their daughters to these men although the person who has been fixed upon may be in indifferent circumstances; for the color of the children of the daughters is bettered and from their well-known prudence and regularity of this set of men, a large fortune may be hoped for even from small beginnings… .

“Still the Brazilians of high birth and large property do not like to intermarry with persons whose mixture of blood is very apparent hence arise peculiar circumstances. A man of this description becomes attached to a woman of color, connects himself with her, and takes her to his home, where she is, in short time, even visited by married women; she governs his household; acts and considers herself as his wife, and frequently after the birth of several children when they are neither of them young, he marries her. In connections of this nature the parties are more truly attached than in marriages between persons who belong to two families of the first rank.”²² Infidelity among such women, he said, was rare.

THE FATHER OF MODERN BRAZIL

XIV. John VI, mulatto ruler of Portugal, who went to Brazil and set up his throne there. (See SEX AND RACE IN THE OLD WORLD.)

In the army and in the priesthood, the same liberality prevailed. Even in the white regiments, says Koster, some of the officers were mulattoes, who were of noble birth, of which aristocratic status one had to be unless he rose from the ranks. He mentions one mulatto colonel, Noguiere, who went to Lisbon and was decorated with the Order of Christ by the Queen of Portugal and later returned to Brazil. “A chief person of one of the provinces,” said Koster, “is the son of a white man and a woman of color; he has received an excellent education, is of a generous disposition, and entertains most liberal views upon all subjects. He has been made a colonel and a degree of nobility has been conferred upon him; likewise the Regent is sponsor to one of his children. Many other instances might be mentioned. Thus has Portugal of late years from policy continued that system into which she was led by her peculiar circumstances in former times. Some of the wealthy planters of Pernambuco and of the rich inhabitants of Recife are men of color.” The best church image painter of Rio de Janeiro, he said, was “a black man.”

The above was also true of the priesthood, which was then very powerful and much looked up to. Walsh wrote, “I have seen myself three clergymen in the same church at the same time, one of whom was white, another a mulatto, and a third, a black.”²³

Some of the unmixed Negroes were very wealthy, according to Koster. One of these a runaway slave became a great landowner, and later gave his master, whom he now had at his mercy, several hundred head of cattle as a present. Ewbank wrote similarly in the 1850’s, “Here are many wealthy people of color. I have passed some black ladies in silks and jewelry with male slaves in livery behind them. Today one rode past in her carriage accompanied by a liveried footman and a coachman. Several have white husbands. The first doctor of the city is a colored man, so is the President of the Province. The Viscountess C---- a, and scores of the first families, are tinged.”²⁴

Mulatto offspring of the rich whites were sent to be educated in the best schools of Portugal. As Kelsey says, “Titled families and aristocrats who had mixed white blood with black sent their mulatto children to Coimbra University in Portugal; these returned more Portuguese in speech, voice and manner than the sugar barons themselves. Some of Brazil’s brightest names have come from these trained men—Antonio Vieira, the purest orator; A. P. de Figueiredo, whose political and social writings are believed to have influenced imperial policy.”²⁵

To the upholders of the doctrine of white racial superiority, the general racial harmony that existed in Brazil, was displeasing, even repugnant. Among the latter was no less a person than Count de Gobineau, himself, the originator of the doctrine of white racial superiority, who happened to be French Minister to Brazil in 1869.

Gobineau, who like most racialists was a neurotic, seems to have been in perfect misery while in Brazil. He was oppressed alike with the heat: the size of the flowers, and even of their brilliancy, but most of all at seeing “Negroes and mulattoes of both sexes” even in the royal palace or in high government positions. The Foreign Minister with whom he had to confer frequently was a mulatto, Baron de Cotegipe. He wrote, “There is no longer a Brazilian family that has not Negro and Indian blood in its veins.” It was a population, he said, “entirely mulatto in mind and ugly enough to make one afraid… . Not a Brazilian of pure blood but the combination offspring of the marriages between whites, aborigines and Negroes are so multiplied that the shades of carnation are innumerable and all that has produced in the lower classes, as in the higher, a degeneration of the saddest aspect.

“The best families are mixed with Negro and Indian. The latter produces creatures particularly repugnant of a reddish-copper. The Empress has three Maids-of-Honor, one of chestnut color; the other bright chocolate: the third, violet.” The chocolate colored one, he says, was “Her Excellency, Dona Josephina da Fonseca, favorite of the Empress.”

In his letter to the French government, he added, “The greater part of those called Brazilians are mixed-bloods, mulattoes, quadroons, caboclos of different degrees. They are found in all social situations. The Baron de Cotegipe, the Foreign Minister, is a mulatto; in the Senate are also mulattoes. In a word whoever says Brazilian says with few exceptions, man of color.”²⁶

The only thing that seemed to please this veteran grumbler was the art work in the Cathedral of Rio. He goes into raptures over it, saying that it was executed with “unforgettable skill and cleverness.” Of course, he attributed it all to the mulattoes and omitted the blacks, who undoubtedly must have done much of it, not to mention the whites. But doing so would not have squared with his theory which is that for a people to be highly gifted in art, music, and poetry, it must have a Negro strain, that is, to be varying degrees of the mulatto.²⁷

C. S. Stewart, an American naval officer, also found the general absence of a color line revolting. Writing in 1850, or thirty-eight years before the emancipation in Brazil, he denounced “the fearfully mongrel aspect of much of the population, claiming to be white. Mulattoes, quadroons, and demi-quadroons, and every other degree of tinted complexion and crisped hair, met, at every turn, indicate an almost unlimited extent of mixed blood. This cannot fail to be revolting, at least to a visitor from the Northern states of our country; especially as exhibited in the female portion of the lower orders of the community as they hang over the under half of the doors of their houses, gazing up and down the street, or lean, black, white and gray, three and four together, in the closest juxtaposition from their latticed windows.

“A striking exhibition of the incongruous mingling of races and mixture of blood was presented in the first object upon which my eye fell on entering the Campo D’Acclamacao on my way to the Senate Chamber. A squadron of dragoons in a scarlet uniform had just been placed in line on one side of the square. A mounted band in Hussar dress of the same color was in attendance. I took a station near this. It was composed of sixteen performers; and in number included every shade of complexion from the blackest ebony of Africa, through demi, quarter, and demi-quarter blood to the purely swarthy Portuguese and Brazilian; and the clear red and white of the Saxon with blue eyes and flaxen hair. Such in a greater or less degree is the mixture seen in every sphere of common life—domestic, social, civil, and military and scarce less frequent than elsewhere in the vestibule of the palace and the altars of the church.”²⁸

Debret, who like Gobineau, was French, was more optimistic. He deplored the aggressiveness of the mulattoes and their prejudice for the blacks, but added, “The mulatto at Rio de Janeiro is the one whose physical organism is perhaps considered the most robust; this native, half-African, blessed with a temperament in harmony with the climate resists most of the extreme heat.” The mulattoes, he said also, “furnished the majority of skilled workers; they were also the most turbulent element and in consequence the easiest to influence in fomenting discords and revolts… . Among these half-whites in their state of perfect civilization, particularly in the principal cities of Brazil, you will meet a great number honored with the general esteem that they owe to their success in the sciences and the arts as medicine, music, mathematics, poetry, surgery and painting… .”²⁹

As regards the rivalry that existed between the whites and the mulattoes on one hand, and the mulattoes and the blacks, on the other he said that the whites looked down upon the mulattoes while the blacks, over whom the mulattoes exercised power, detested the latter, calling them monsters, since “God had made only the white man and the black man.”

Walsh, too, thought that the mixed-bloods and Negroes were superior to the whites. He said, “The superiority of the colored population is not greater in number than it is in physical powers. Some of the blacks and mulattoes are the most vigorous and athletic persons that it is possible to contemplate and who would be models for a Farnese Hercules…. In this respect they are strongly contrasted with the flabby Brazilians of Portuguese descent who look the very personification of indolence and inactivity.”³⁰

Lady Maria Callcott who visited Brazil in 1821-3 found the Negroes and mulattoes of Brazil very industrious. She said that they had strong motives “to exertion of every kind and succeed in what they undertake accordingly. They are the best artificers and artists. The orchestra of the opera house is composed of at least one-third mulattoes… . All decorative painting, carving and inlaying is done by them, in short, they excel in all ingenious mechanical arts.”³¹ She had not a similar good opinion of the Portuguese and the white creoles.

Southern Brazil, which because of the influx of German, English, and Italian immigrants, is now predominantly white, was then also largely Negro and mixed blood. Robertson, who visited that region in the 1830’s, wrote, “The mass of the population claiming to be white, is descended from the original Portuguese settlers and from African and Indian women. The Ethiopian blood in the course of centuries, has got somewhat attenuated; so that the man who has not curly hair, however dark may be his hue, boasts that he is of ‘sangre’ noble, or noble blood.

“Light hair and a ruddy complexion are held to be indisputable and enviable marks of a nobility… . The highest and most aristocratic class is descended from the original invaders, who took over with them, European mistresses or wives. The next grade, or caste, is that descended from mixed Portuguese and Indian or African ancestors; then comes a sort of dubious race claiming descent from a European male parent, but with very equivocal pretensions to it; your mulatto of decidedly African caste following next and last of all comes poor Sambo, himself, from the Congo.”³²

Freedom in miscegenation continued into the 1900’s. Georges Clemenceau, late Premier of France, wrote, “The Portuguese woman and the Negro seem to get along well together as is evidenced by the innumerable half-breeds to be seen in their serene bronze nudity at the doors of the cabins.”³³

J. A. Zahm, who accompanied Theodore Roosevelt on his Brazilian expedition said, similarly, “To such an extent has miscegenation prevailed in some of the seaboard countries between Bahia and Para that full-blooded whites, Negroes, and Indians are rather the exception than the rule… . Whites, Indians, and Negroes associate together in a way which would be quite impossible with us, and which an old Virginia planter would condemn as an abomination unutterable. Some of the highest government and municipal offices in Bahia as in other parts of Brazil are held by Negroes and half-castes, and they attend public functions on a footing of absolute equality with the whites who have preserved their racial purity intact. One of the leading members of the reception committee which came to greet our party was a prominent government official who was a Negro. He took a conspicuous part in the entertainments that were prepared for us during our visits and was treated with the same respect and deference as if he had been a Filho de Reino—a native of Portugal… .

“Some of the most distinguished men the country has produced have had a strain of Negro blood in their veins. This is evidenced by the long list of literary men, artists, poets, historians, juriconsults, men of science, novelists and politicians in which the amalgamation of the white and black has been most pronounced.” Referring to the three Dumas’s of France, he says, “Brazil can show countless instances of this kind in every department of intellectual activity.”³⁴

Lord Bryce, author of “The American Commonwealth” was of the same opinion. Writing in 1914, he said, “In the United States everyone who is not white is classed as colored however slight the trace. In Spanish America everyone who is not wholly Indian is classified as white. An infusion of Negro blood sometimes met with in the coast towns of Peru is regarded with less favor than a like infusion of Indian blood, for while the first Negro ancestor must have been a slave, the Indian ancestor may have been an Inca. Thus, the mixed population which in the United States swells the Negro element is in Spanish America a part of the white nation, and helps to give that element its preponderance. And a further difference appears in the fact that whereas in the United States the man of color is discriminated against for social purposes, irrespective of his wealth, education or personal qualities, in Spanish countries race counts for so little that when he emerges out of the poverty and ignorance which marks the Indian, his equality with the white is admitted… . The Brazilian lower class marries freely with the black people and the Brazilian middle class intermarries with mulattoes and quadroons… . The white man does not lynch or maltreat the Negro, indeed, I have never heard of a lynching anywhere in South America, except occasionally as part of a political convulsion.”³⁵

Dr. Thomas J. Watkins of the American College of Physicians and Surgeons, who went to Brazil and other South American countries with a number of other doctors, wrote similarly: “The Negroes of South America of whom there are many, were very interesting to us, as there is no color-line although slavery was abolished later than with us, as late as 1888 in Brazil. Negroes are numerous in Peru and Brazil, much less so in the other countries we visited. South America should be an everlasting joy to the race as there is no evidence of color prejudice. Some of the Negroes are very well-educated, industrious and prosperous. For example, the superintendent of the insane asylum of Rio de Janeiro with 1400 patients is a Negro of high intelligence, culture, and ability. He is generally considered one of the representative men of Brazil. He has a very keen and intelligent knowledge and interest in the individual inmates of the institution. He has been the state representative to many countries and to congresses in psychiatry. He has a very large library and speaks fluently in five languages, French, Spanish. Portuguese, German and English. He speaks English so fluently he would easily be taken for a native of England and the States. He is an exceptional man but well illustrates the possibilities of the Negro in South America. We were informed in Sao Paulo that tuberculosis and interrelation with the whites solves the Negro problem. A Sao Paulon said that the white men were very partial to the Negro women and a Rio de Janeiro doctor volunteered the information that the Negro was much desired by the German peasant women.”³⁶

The Negro psychiatrist mentioned is Dr. Juliano Moreira, a native of Bahia, who died a few years ago and “was one of the great pioneers in the treatment of insanity in Brazil.” He was “enormously productive” and his prestige extended to Europe. In several of his short studies he challenged those who asserted that the Negro and the mulatto were inferior.³⁷

DISTINGUISHED BRAZILIANS.

XV. 1. Jose do Patrocinio, abolition leader. 2. Baron de Cotegipe, Prime Minister of Dom Pedro II. 3. Jose White, noted violinst, born in Cuba. 4. Carlos Gomes, author of “II Guarany.”

The same general democracy exists in the matter of employment. Frank Bennett, a white American who lived many years in Brazil and was there before the abolition of slavery and the fall of the monarchy, wrote: “In 1731, the King of Portugal issued a decree declaring that color should not constitute a bar to the holding of public office under the crown. And under the reign of Dom Pedro II several Brazilians of African origin received decorations and titles of nobility.” Among the latter was the Viscount Jequitonhonha, who was sent by Dom Pedro II as Minister to the United States, and was refused at all the hotels and so generally snubbed that he returned to Brazil. Kidder and Fletcher said of this nobleman “as a politician, diplomatist, and lawyer, he ranks among the first men of the Empire.”³⁸ Another was John Mauricio Wanderley, Baron de Cotegipe, Prime Minister under Dom Pedro II. Bennett says that Cotegipe was “highly respected for his sound judgment and for other eminent qualities which inspired confidence in so marked a degree that it was a noteworthy fact that whenever he was at the head of the government the rate of exchange was always higher than under the administration of any other political leader.” Baron Cotegipe, who died in 1889, poor, stood “head and shoulders above his countrymen, regardless of color.”³⁹

Hale, another American, said similarly, “One of the presidents of Brazil, a man respected for his deeds as well as for his ambition, confesses with a frank pride that he has Negro blood in his veins and that his nation as a whole resents any imputation that black blood carries social inequality with it. I was invited one evening to a small dinner party at which we were to meet Senhorita X ----, a young lady freshly launched into society, whose musical talent was exceptional, even in this land naturally so gifted with love of both poetry and music. I was the only one of the guests who had not met her, so that she was smothered with greetings before I was presented; but when my turn came I was astonished to find before me what we would call a mulatto—kinky hair, thick lips and prominent teeth. There was not the least trace of embarrassment in her or the rest of the company. She sat opposite me at table, played for us later some brilliant piano pieces and kissed all the ladies good-bye with so much ease it was absolutely impossible to conceive any difference among us on account of race.”⁴⁰

Still another white American, C. S. Cooper, offers Brazil as an object lesson in democracy to the United States. He says, “The amazing wonder of all (especially to a North American less familiar with European races and holding decided views concerning color lines, etc.), is the manner in which this country is slowly and apparently with harmony and democratic social and racial relations evolving a distinct Brazilian type. The salient characteristics of what is becoming to be known as the true Brazilian character include the aristocratic culture and high intelligence of the old family Portuguese stock at once Latin and Moorish by inheritance, the exaltation, daring and passion of a vigorous aborigines blood softened by the affectionate emotional strain of the African especially of North Brazil—the whole shot through with the typical modernity and enterprise that marriage and general contact with European races have afforded. With such elements the national home of Brazil is being compounded. Knowing its ingredients one is not surprised to find its members at the summit of society, the qualities of imagination, intuition, courtesy, alertness of mind, statement, a conservatism that is Eastern, a love of beauty that is Latin, and a tropical hospitality and simplicity as generous and charming as Brazilian sunshine.”⁴¹

In the making of Brazil the Negro and the mulatto have been given the first place by several writers. Roy Nash says, “Negroes carried upon their well-muscled backs, the full weight of the Portuguese Empire in the eighteenth century as they alone carried the weight of the Brazilian Empire for the first half of the nineteenth century.”⁴² Calogeras says, too, “It is only fair to recognize that from the material and economic point of view the Negro constitutes the chief factor in the building of Brazil,”⁴³ while Preston James points out that the African was already a skilled iron-worker when he came to Brazil, and says, “The Negro foreman on the plantations, or later in the gold mines, knew more about the technological processes than did many of the Portuguese owners. From the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, agricultural and mining enterprise in Brazil owed a large debt to the Negro laborers and technicians.”⁴⁴

Koster mentions one of these Negro foreman—a slave, Nicolau, who was in charge of a great plantation belonging to the Catholic Brothers of Olinda, and who offered a large sum for his freedom but was told by the priests that “the estate could not be properly managed without him.” He was, however, treated in all other respects like a white man; he could sit in the presence of his masters and had married a woman of the convent; his horse and his appointments were of the finest but he would not be given his liberty even though he offered two of his own slaves for himself.

MIXED BLOODS OP BRAZIL.

XVI. Nilo Pecanha, President of Brazil, 1908-1910.

To the economic and the technical contributions of the Negro to Brazil we must also add the artistic. Rio de Janeiro is one of the most beautiful cities on earth.

The future of Brazil lies, too, in the hands of this mixed race which, today, seems to constitute the majority of the population. The present Negroid population is usually estimated at from one-third to one-fourth but there is no way of knowing the exact proportion. Since 1889, census-takers have been forbidden to take any notice of race. But even before that the idea was ridiculed. Codman said in 1872, “Some years ago when a census was to be taken, it was proposed to divide the classes of the community and to enumerate separately the white, black, and mixed. The Brazilians themselves laughed at the imbecile who wasted his ink in the suggestion. ‘Mixed.’ There is black blood everywhere, stirred in, compounded over and over again, like an apothecary’s preparation. African blood runs freely through marble halls as well as the lowest gutters, and the Indian blood swells the current. There is no distinction between white and black or any of the intermediate colors, which can act as a bar to social or political advancement.”⁴⁵

Yes, Brazil is Negroid, especially Northern Brazil. In the state of Bahia are hundreds of thousands of unmixed Negroes, many of whom are of Islamic faith. Rio de Janeiro, too, is largely Negroid. Ruhl said of that city in 1908, “You feel as though you were walking through a deserted white man’s city held by a black army of occupation.” He said he went to a great ball given at the palace of the Minister of Foreign Affairs “and gliding about in the waltz, as well-dressed and at ease as any there, were young men who showed almost plainly enough to be called mulattoes, the marks of their Negro blood.”⁴⁶

Zahm wrote in 1916, “Here, indeed, where the earth is ever bathed in sunshine the little Negroes and half-breeds were so numerous that one could almost fancy them springing up like the Athenians, or originating, according to the legend of Deucalion, from the stones of the earth.”⁴⁷

A French visitor to Rio de Janeiro, in 1928, records his impressions thus also, “The traveler who lands in Brazil for the first time is struck by the importance of the colored population. It is of all shades and is very varied from shiny black to ash-grey or to chocolate with all the intermediate shades. Besides these tonal elements, frankly Negro, appears the whole gamut of race mixtures. There are even elements, which at first sight, appear as white, but which are not long in revealing themselves as having indisputable somatic signs, as brightness of skin; fullness of certain features as the lips, for instance; shape of the eyes and fixity of the look; and woolly and abundant hair—all in all a mixture of blood such as would not deceive a North American for an instant and which would cause him to experience before these self-styled whites, the irresistible repulsion that the sight of an octoroon or even the descendant of a mixed-blood in whose veins flow even one-thirty-second part of African blood, inspires in him.”⁴⁸

Gilberto Freyre, Brazil’s leading sociologist and a white man, goes even further. He says that not only is there a predominant Negro strain in the Brazilian but that the Brazilian, even when white, is psychologically Negro. “Every Brazilian,” he says, “even the white with the blond hair carries in his soul, if not in his body, the mark of the Negro. In tenderness, in excessive mimicry, in Catholicism, that delights the emotion, in walking, speaking, singing little lullabies, in all that is a sincere expression of life, we bear the unmistakable stamp of Negro influence. We had it from the sinhama (slave woman) who lullabied us to sleep, who gave us suck and fed us; from the negra velha (old mammy) who told us our first amazing tales; from the mulatto girl who gave us such pleasure digging out the first bicho de pe; from those who initiated us into the art of physical love and brought us to the first complete sensation of what it means to be a man; and from the muleque (personal slave of the young Brazilian master) who was our first playmate… .

“We (whites and blacks) are two fraternal halves mutually enriched with diverse values and experiences; when we shall become a whole, it shall not be achieved by sacrificing one element to another.”⁴⁹

Bahia, not Harlem, is the real Negro paradise. Here the colored woman is at her best. For centuries, Negroes in this province have enjoyed fortunes made in gold, diamonds, and rubber. Some of the Brazilian women are among the most captivating on earth, for those who have eyes to see. Henderson says, “We, Northerners, cannot yet understand the beauty of the pure Negress but a whole continent has fallen before her, and a good part of another. It may be that African sculpture will reveal the mystery to us. Not all Brazilian Negresses are washerwomen. Some of them are very wealthy, indeed.”⁵⁰

In American beauty contests, only white women are considered. Not so in Brazil. Inman writes, “In a recent Rio de Janeiro beauty contest, the state of Rio Grande was represented by a perfect type of German, while the charming senorita from the central state of Brazil was distinctly Negroid, and Miss Para from the north, looked quite English.”⁵¹

GIFTED BRAZILIAN DANCER.

XVII. Senhorita Eros Volusia, exotic Bahian of Negro ancestry, whose dancing of the MACUMBA, or African war-dance, has made her famous. Member of Brazil’s Ministry of Education, for which she conducts courses in the African dance.

The descendants of the Mina women in Brazil are still a delight to the connoisseur of feminine beauty and sprightliness. As one writer says, “Her turban, her shawl, her ornaments, her elastic step in the heeled slipper, display a native grace unattainable by modern fashion.”

The narrow streets of Bahia are filled with “erect, well-built Negroes, their bodies clothed in the gaudy colors dear to the Negro, gold chains about their necks, their brown skins covered with bracelets, great hoops in their ears. Their full print skirts sway gracefully as they walk with unshod feet. Bahia is the paradise of children, little black, brown, and tan babies clothed in nature’s original garb.” Of course there is much poverty, squalor, and ignorance, too.

Color prejudice in Southern Brazil, and even in Rio de Janeiro has increased considerably in recent years by English, America, and Nazi residents. In the pre-Hitler years, no immigrant to Latin America was less prejudiced than the German. He came to Brazil as Ruhl says, “to become one of the people; to live their life and marry their daughters even though the child of the future generation may have a quaint kink in its hair.”⁵² Now, however, Nazi units in Brazil, and other South American countries, have terrorized the otherwise broad-minded Germans into showing race prejudice as one way of cementing Nazi unity.

Thomas Mann, Germany’s greatest living writer, and Nobel prize winner, comes of this German-Brazilian stock. Professor Phelps says, “His mother was the daughter of a German planter in Brazil and a Creole wife.” (N. Y. Herald-Tribune, June 23, 1938.)

As for white American influence in the Latin-American countries it has been worse even than the Nazi one. The average American carries color dissension abroad as Eugene Sue’s Wandering Jew carried the plague from continent to continent. Inman writes of “the prejudice introduced and maintained by the Anglo-Saxon residents in America” and adds, “In the present world-wide agitation over the question of race, it is particularly regrettable that foreign countries should desire to transfer their own prejudices to Latin America as Germany has done, and it must be admitted as the United States has done by importing its prejudice against Negroes into Puerto Rico, Cuba, and other Caribbean areas.”⁵³

E. Franklin Frazier says, “The British and the Americans draw a color line not only in their social contacts with Brazilians but as white collar workers. Americans who have gone to Brazil as technical advisers have insisted that even distinguished black officials be ejected from hotels and when their wishes were not respected they have left the hotel. In spite of the good neighbor policy it is likely that increasing financial and industrial penetration of Brazil by Americans will accentuate discrimination on the basis of color. Even at the present time Brazilians are careful to select pictures of the right complexion for the American public.^53a

Gilberto Freyre, one of Brazil’s leading writers, is very frank on the subject. “For thirty years,” he says, “Brazil has been menaced by Nordic civilization and the menace grows daily. .

“The state of Santa Catharina, for example, is full of North American, British, and German agents, who are out not only to exploit the colored man as an inferior but agitate for purity of race… .”⁵⁴

Nor does this mean that all Brazilians are free from color prejudice themselves, especially in their intimate social affairs. As in colonial days, there are still circles where even light-colored mulattoes would not be admitted, much less a Negro. There are societies not only in Brazil but throughout Latin-America even in those lands “most liberal toward Negroes in which the appearance of a Negro would be regarded as a profanation.”⁵⁵ Yes, and there are circles, too, not entirely white, where it is only the rare American, Englishman, or German, who is admitted. Latin peoples, regardless of color, rarely admit strangers to their homes.

In the Brazilian navy, as in the American one, there is much color prejudice, too. Negroes, at least those visibly so, are admitted as seamen but not as officers. So badly were the blacks treated that they revolted in 1911 under one of their number, Joao Candido, and seized the new battleship, Minas Geraes. In the higher class barber-shops, especially in southern Brazil, mulattoes will be served but the black man is refused. The latter, too, are not usually found in banks and other similar places.

One wonders, however, whether a certain attitude in the blacks have not something to do with their not being in these higher positions. Numbers of unmixed blacks, not only in Brazil, but in Africa, and in other parts of the New World do feel themselves creatures apart because of their color and are thus less likely to push themselves into places where they are not supposed to be “wanted.” The man who goes only where he is “wanted” is doomed to remain at the foot of the ladder. He must make himself wanted. Any number of unmixed blacks can be found who are isolationists. Bennett, a white American, who lived forty years in Brazil, says that he was once walking on the Rua Nuova in Rio, when he saw a party of white tourists suddenly come into close proximity with a black woman, who, at once, drew aside with a lofty air, and exclaimed, “Oh meu deus, os brancos perto de mim.” (Oh, my God, the whites so close to me.)⁵⁶ I have noticed the same thing in Africa, and incidentally among other aborigines, as the Indians. Oppression has bred isolationism into them. Columbus tells how very friendly and kind the Indians were at first; later, under ill-treatment, they shunned the Spaniards like poison. The identical is true of the African.

But even with matters as they are, the status of the unmixed black in Brazil is far superior than it is in the British West Indies or the United States. He is not forced into segregated areas, and if he is a skilled workman, he may be placed over lighter colored men. Koebel tells of seeing full-blooded Negroes in charge of parties of white and mulatto workmen in Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, and even in Santos, the part of Brazil that is most white.⁵⁷ Also he is not barred from public places of amusement, and the general tendency is to accept him as a member of the human family. “Brazil,” says Harding, “is the country of all countries where social democracy really works. The most tolerant of all the world’s people, Brazilians completely erase social lines. White, red, and black pigments have been poured into a gigantic homogenizer to produce the conglomerate Brazilian race which views with equanimity the commingling of bloods… If you expect to enjoy yourself here you must rid your mind of race prejudices. In restaurants, street-cars, theatres or anywhere else you may be seated immediately beside the ace of spades and if you don’t like it you have the privilege of getting out.”⁵⁸

Moreover Brazil is discovering her own wonderful personality and in proportion as she is doing so the old racial inferiority complex and prejudice in favor of European ways and culture are fading away. Gilberto Freyre, speaking of the tremendous influence the Negro and the mulatto have had upon Brazilian music, art, literature, exploration and settlement, mechanical arts, cooking, and culture in general, says, “In contemporary Brazil, almost no one, save an occasional snob, tries to conceal from foreigners the importance of the African element. During and immediately after the movement for political independence in Brazil and during the romantic ‘Indianist’ phase, in poetry, the novel, and art, there was a glorification of Indian blood. Nowadays if there is no actual boasting about their African blood on the part of certain illustrious mesticoes—and the great majority of Brazilians are mesticoes—there does not exist the shame in admitting it which was as current as late as ten or fifteen years ago. It was then common for distinguished mesticoes. who were dark in color and obviously Negroid to proclaim themselves the descendants of Indians and display their pride in being caboclos… .

“Culture in Brazil has ceased to be tamely colonial. It has abandoned its attitude of passive subordination to European models, and has become autonomous. And this movement of cultural autonomy in modern Brazil is based to a great extent on recognition of the fact that important elements in our racial evolution derive not merely from exploitation of native or indigenous factors but from another type of colonizing which accompanied the Portuguese in that part of America. In short, the Negro …”⁵⁹

Among other eminent Brazilians with a Negro strain were John VI, King of Portugal⁶⁰ and Brazil, who left Portugal during the Napoleonic Wars and established his royal seat at Rio de Janeiro. John VI was about five-eighths Negro; his son, Pedro I of Brazil, founder of Brazilian Independence, and brother-in-law of Napoleon, was consequently of Negro ancestry, also. This, in turn gave a Negro strain, though attenuated to the latter’s son, Dom Pedro II, one of the handsomest, most intellectual, and most enlightened rulers in all history. Carlos Gomes, the first man of the New World to write an opera that received highest European recognition, was of mixed Negro. Caucasian, and Indian ancestry. Pradez, writing in 1872, when Gomes was still alive, said, “The first extraordinary musician that Brazil ever produced is found to be a colored man.”⁶¹ Gomes was sent to Europe to study at Dom Pedro II’s expense. Antonio C. G. Crespo (1846-1883), mulatto, born in Brazil, was one of Portugal’s most celebrated writers. He married Maria Amalia de Carvalho, white, also a celebrated writer. Another very noted mulatto was Jose de Patrocinio, son of a Portuguese-Indian priest and a Negro women. Patrocinio, who was known as “The Abolition Tiger” led the fight for the emancipation of the slaves through his brilliant and biting articles in La Gazeta de la Tarde. Machado de Assis, another mulatto, was for a long time Brazil’s most eminent literary figure. Nilo de Pecanha (1867-1922), another mulatto, was president of Brazil, while General Deodoro de Fonseca, usually called Deodoro, the founder of the Brazilian republic and its first president was colored.⁶² Brazil has had not less than five colored presidents.

As for the distinguished colored men of Brazil—writers, engineers, scientists, statesmen, soldiers, journalists, merchants and others—the list is too great to be given here. Arthur Ramos has a partial list of them.⁶³ One of the greatest of all the Brazilian poets was Joao Cruz e Sousa (1862-1898), son of a Negro slave. There was at least one Catholic archbishop, too, Silverio Pimenta.

In conclusion, one thought, which though not entirely germane to the subject, is important. Why is Brazil though larger and older than the United States behind her in development? The tendency of some is to attribute it to race. The more truthful answer is, I think, climatic environment. Northern countries are more favorable for industrialization than southern ones. In the United States, itself, the industrial North is far ahead of the agricultural South. In Italy, too, one finds the same situation. Now Northern Brazil is even more southern in climate than the South of the United States. In fact, most of Latin America is still either agricultural or the producer of raw materials. It is the manufacturing nations, not the agricultural ones, which make big profits. Race has nothing to do with it, or the people of England would still be at the foot of the ladder.

Will Latin America ever be industrialized? Probably. But then it will be largely goodby to its charm, spirited music, and courtesy. Today the Latin American meets you with much less of the profit motive in his mind than the Anglo-Saxon American.

Brazil has ever stood out as the most truly democratic nation in the New World. As Gilberto Freyre says of the United States, “What democracy have you to defend? What you loosely call democracy is, in fact, a representative system that makes no sincere move towards the social democracy we have here (in Brazil). You don’t tolerate blacks in your theatres, restaurants, and even in your fashionable churches. In Brazil they go where they like; admitting them is not even a gesture but a perfectly unconscious procedure.”

There is, as was said, a good deal of the Old World caste of color in Brazil, but it will vanish in time. The defeat of the white man in Asia, and the ruin that will follow in Europe after this war is going to take much of the gilt off merely being born white, thereby restoring pre-colonial human values, which were based not on skin color, but on innate worth.

To paraphrase Picasso, using “democracy” where he uses “love: Demoracy must be proved by facts and not by reasons. What one does is what counts, not what one has the intention of doing.”

Indeed, we could even let the word “love” stand. For what else is true democracy but love of one’s fellow-man?

Note: In Sobrados y Mucambos, Freyre has many references throughout the book to Negroes and mulattoes. Chapter VIII is devoted to “The Rise of the Bachelor and the Mulatto.” James W. Ivy, who prepared a short review of it for me, says, “It is rather hard to make appropriate quotations from this chapter because out of text these quotations might be misleading. Briefly, the thesis of the chapter is that the college-trained man, the bachelor, and the mulatto, many of whom had received the best college-training offered by Brazil and Europe, began gradually to usurp the powers and privileges of the old slave-holding aristocrat. Between a down-at-heel aristocrat and an up-and-coming mulatto bachelor from Coimbra the beauteous daughter of some old family would much prefer the mulatto bachelor. Prodded by ambition, lowly birth, and their complexo de inferioridade because of their Negro blood, these mulattoes, like the Jews in Western Europe, gradually forged to the front rank in education, the professions, politics, and the sciences. Freyre calls them the new-whites—brancos-novos. Many illustrious mulattoes because of their economic and intellectual ascendancy soon became officially white—tornaram-se officialmente brancos. Among these men are some of the most illustrious names in Brazil…”

* * *

Other quotations from Freyre on this subject, are:

“Perhaps another factor [in the rise of the mulatto] was the marriage of elderly white men from illustrious families, descendants of barons and well situated in life, with beautiful mulattoes, quadroons, and octoroons who carried themselves like fine white ladies and gave evidence of a sexual ardor beyond the ordinary from the mere fact of their being mixed-bloods.” (p. 337)

* * *

“One can in the meantime affirm the truth that the Portuguese preferred the brown woman, for physical love at least. The light woman had come into fashion, a fashion limited to the upper classes, primarily as a result of the reaction against outside influence rather than as an expression of genuine national taste. In respect to Brazil, the popular saying, “A white woman for marriage, a mulatto woman for sexual intercourse, and a black woman for work,” shows that along with the conventional social superiority of the white woman and the inferiority of the black, there was a sexual preference for the mulata. Moreover, our love lyrics reveal no other tendency except this glorification of the mulata, the cabocla [mixed Indian-white blood], the brown woman celebrated for the beauty of her eyes, the whiteness of her teeth, for her femininity, her amorous charm; for she was so much more enchanting than the ‘pallid virgins’ and the ‘blond demoiselles.’ This theme surges through poem after poem, and popular song after popular song, throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” (p. 9).

“The mulata, whether au naturel or decked out and sophisticated by the art of the French coiffeur, the English bootmaker, the Parisian modiste, or the European parfumeur (and we believe no people in the world have been so extravagant in their use of European perfumes as the Brazilian mulatto, perhaps to combat that Negro body odor so highly appreciated by certain white voluptaries) has always had her amorous attraction, her “it,” for the white man. The Brazilian mulatto man has likewise exercised an equal charm over the white woman; if not always au naturel (for tradition preserves the memory of those rare crimes, all the more terrible, because white mistresses surrendered themselves in a moment of great passion to their mulatto slaves) at least when the mulatto had been ‘aristocratize’ by education, and especially by a European education, as in the case of Dr. Raymund in the romance [O Mulato] of Alusio.” (pp. 335-36. 1938. 3 ed.).

Mr. Ivy who is an authority on Latin American literature, has also prepared for me a list of 105 leading Brazilians of Negro-Caucasian ancestry—engineers, statesmen, jurists, physicians, etc. He adds, “It is extremely difficult in Brazil and Latin America to identify a man’s racial origin because of their habit of lumping the light-complexioned mulattoes, if they have class, with the upper-class whites. You can sometimes read bales of stuff about a man without once running across reference to the fact that he is a Negro, unless he happens to be coal-black.”

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rocha Pombo, J. F., Historia do Brasil, Vol. 2, pp. 525-620. 1905. (On ethnological elements in Brazil.)

Nogueira Jaguaribe, J., Brasil Antigo. 1910.

Beals, C. America South (Chap. Black Ivory). 1927.

Frank, W., America Hispana, pp. 184, 188, 199. 1931.

Pierson, D. The Negro in Brazil. 1942. This recent and excellent work tells of some mixed marriages in high Brazilian life. See chapters on Miscegenation and Intermarriage.

___________

¹ Burney, J., Voyage and Discovery in the South Sea, Vol. 1, p. 21. 1803.

² Debret, J. B., Voyage pittoresque au Brésil, Vol. 2, p. 18. 1835.

³ Rocha Pombo, J. F., Historia do Brazil, Vol. 4. 1905.

⁴ Ramos, A., The Negro in Brazil (Chapter on Slave Insurrections in Brazil).

⁵ Bruce, J. G., Brazil and the Brazilians, pp. 59-60.

⁶ Walsh, R., Notices of Brazil, Vol. 1, p. 465. 1830.

⁷ Mathison, G. F., Narrative of a Visit to Brazil, in 1821-2, p. 159. 1825.

⁸ Robertson, J. P. & W. P., Letters on Paraguay, Vol. 1, p. 162. 1839.

⁹ Gardner, G., Travels in the Interior of Brazil, pp. 4-15. 1846.

¹⁰ Koster, H., Travels in Brazil, p. 426. 1816.

¹¹ Caldcleugh, A., Travels in South America. Vol. 1. p. 75. 1825.

¹² Caldcleugh, A., Vol. 2, p. 275.

¹³ Walsh, R., Vol. 2, pp. 155, 295. 1830.

¹⁴ Walsh, R., Vol. 2, p. 274.

¹⁵ Walsh, R., Vol. 2, p. 155.

¹⁶ Codman, J., Ten Months in Brazil, p. 153. 1872.

¹⁷ Johnston, H. H., Negro in the New World, p. 92. 1910.

Hertz says, “In Brazil a few slave-owners remarked that the mulattoes were better workers than the pure Negroes, and they at once took the necessary steps to produce them themselves. To do this they paired Negresses with white men. As many of these men revolted to see their children becoming slaves, it happened sometimes that two neighboring slave-owners gave themselves up to the purpose of procreating mulattoes for each other.” (Race and Civilization, p. 326. 1928.)

¹⁸ Burton, Sir R., Highlands of Brazil, Vol. 1, p. 271. 1869.

¹⁹ Ewbank, T., Life in Brazil, p, 283. 1856.

²⁰ Burton, Sir R., Highlands of Brazil, Vol. 1, p. 393. 1869.

²¹ Koster, H., pp. 385, 391. 1816.

²² Koster, H., pp. 393-4.

²³ Walsh, R., Vol. 1, p. 384. 1830.

²⁴ Ewbank, T., p. 267. 1856.

²⁵ Kelsey, V., Seven Keys to Brazil, p. 61. 1940. For Negro strain in Antonio Vieira, see Rogers, J. A., Sex and Race in the Old World, p. 159. 1941.

²⁶ Gobineau, Le Comte de Gobineau au Brésil, pp. 51, 52, 73, 536. 1934. This old codger had no kindlier words for the United States. Its hordes of white immigrants displeased him immensely. “They represent,” he said, “the most varied specimens of the races of Old Europe of whom the least possible can be expected. They are the refuse of all the ages—Irish; Germans, often mixed-bloods; some French; and Italians, who outnumber the others. The mixture of all these degenerate types, gives and will continue to give, birth to new ethnic confusions. These mixtures have in them nothing Italian, Frenchman, Anglo-Saxon will amalgamate in the Southern States with the Indian, Negro, Spaniard, and Portuguese already there. From such a mixture one can imagine nothing but horrible racial results—nothing but an incoherent juxtaposition of the most degraded beings.” In short, this scornful neurotic saw no more hope for a white-skinned United States of America than he did for a brown-skinned United States of Brazil. (L’Inegalité des Races Humaines, Vol. 4, p. 313. 1853.)

²⁷ Gobineau. ibid, Vol. 2, pp. 92-93. 1853. “Certainly,” he says, “the Negro element is indispensable for the development of the artistic genius in a race. The Negro is the human creature best endowed, is the one most energetically seized by the artistic emotion, etc., etc.”

²⁸ Stewart, C, S., Brazil and La Plata, pp. 72-73. 1856.

²⁹ Debret, J. B., Vol. 2, pp. 18-19. 1835.

³⁰ Walsh, R., Vol. 2, p. 331. 1830.

³¹ Callcott, M., Journal of a Voyage, etc., p. 197. 1824.

³² Robertson, J. P. & W. P., Letters on Paraguay, Vol. 1, p. 160. 1839.

³³ Clemenceau, G., South America of Today, p. 334, 354-55. 1911.

³⁴ Zahm, J. A., Through South America’s Southland, pp. 40-41. 1916.

³⁵ Bryce, Viscount, South America. See Chap. on race relations, pp. 443-450. 1914.

³⁶ Martin, F. H., South America From a Surgeon’s Point of View, p. 201. 1922.

³⁷ Ramos, A., The Negro in Brazil, p. 148. 1939.

Novos Estudos Afro-Brasileiros (Civilizacao Brasileira, 1937) ‘Juliano Moreira

Problema do Negro e do Mestiço no Brazil,” pp. 147-150. Also, p. 47.

Freyre, G., Sobrados e Mucambos, p. 356. 1936.

Archivos Brasileiros de Psychiatria, Neurologia e Sceincias Affins, No, 1, 1905.

³⁸ Kidder & Fletcher. Brazil and the Brazilians, p. 185. 1857.

³⁹ Bennett, F., Forty Years in Brazil, pp. 61-2, 1914.

⁴⁰ Hale, A., The South Americans, p. 224. 1907.

⁴¹ Cooper, C. S., The Brazilians and Their Country, p. 124. 1917.

⁴² Nash, R., Conquest of Brazil, p. 156. 1926.

⁴³ Calogeras, J. B., History of Brazil, p. 30. 1929. (Trans. P. A. Martin.)

⁴⁴ James, P., Latin America, p. 400. 1942.

⁴⁵ Codman, J., Ten Months in Brazil, p. 153. 1872.

⁴⁶ Ruhl, A., The Other Americans, p. 274. 1908.

⁴⁷ Zahm, J. A., Through South America’s Southland, p. 58. 1916.

⁴⁸ Henri Hauser, Annales de Geographie, Vol. 47, pp. 509-14. 1938.

⁴⁹ Freyre, G., Casa Grande e Senzala, pp. 197, 247. 1933. See also the chapter, “O Escravo Negro na Vida Sexual e de familia do Brasileiro,” in this book.

⁵⁰ Henderson, K., Palm Groves and Humming Birds, p. 95. 1924.

⁵¹ Inman, S., Latin America, p. 59. 1937.

⁵² Ruhl, A., The Other Americans, p. 287. 1908.

⁵³ Inman, S., p. 67. 1937.

^53a Phylon. Vol. 3. No. 3. 1942. pp. 294-5.

⁵⁴ Harding, J., I Like Brazil.

⁵⁵ Warshaw, J., The New Latin America, p. 19. 1922.

⁵⁶ Bennett, F., Forty Years in Brazil, p. 9. 1914.

⁵⁷ Koebel, W. H., South Americans, p. 105. 1915.

⁵⁸ Harding, J., pp. 42-43. 1941.

⁵⁹ Quar. Jour. of Inter-American Relations. Vol. 1, pp. 69-75, 1939

⁶⁰ Rogers, J. A., Sex and Race in the Old World, p. 156. 1941.

⁶¹ Pradez, C., Nouvelles Etudes sur Bresil, p. 89. 1872. See also “Brazilian Music and Musicians,” Pan-American Bull., Vol. 64, pp. 119-1121. 1930.

⁶² Dornas, J. A Escravidao no Brasil, p. 228. 1939. Crisis Maga. Sept. 1913. p 245.

⁶³ Ramos, A., The Negro in Brazil, pp. 107-186. 1939.