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A scientific theory that asserts that some systems display behavioral phenomena completely inexplicable by any conventional analysis of the systems' constituent parts.

The following complexity metaphor was coined already by Aristotle (384–322 BCE).

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Complexity leads to several challenges for risk analysis, as pinpointed by Leveson (1995):

Many of the new hazards are related to increased complexity (both product and process) in the systems we are building. Not only are new hazards created by the complexity, but the complexity makes identifying them more difficult.

The ever‐increasing integration of information and communication technology in systems and the expanding digital infrastructure are important contributors to system complexity. This problem is discussed further by Grøtan et al. (2011).

Most often, a system is not designed or built to be complex, but develops into a complex system through changes, coupling, and/or emergent properties.