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Before beginning data analysis, the researcher may wish to transform some of the variables in a number of ways that might include:

 regrouping values on a nominal or ordered category measure to create fewer categories;

 creating class intervals from metric measures;

 computing totals or other scores from combinations of several values of variables;

 treating groups of variables as a single multiple response question;

 upgrading or downgrading measures;

 handling missing values and ‘Don’t know’ responses;

 coding open-ended questions;

 creating crisp or fuzzy set memberships from nominal, ordered category, ranked or metric measures.

Most of these tasks can be accomplished by using SPSS procedures, which are explained in Boxes 2.2–2.6 in this chapter.