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The main purpose of this book is to collate examples of environmental management from military live-fire training ranges to demonstrate that environmental best practice is compatible with operational activities. The book is divided into four sections; the first provides background information that will help the reader to understand the scientific principles behind environmental management. The second comprises methodologies for the environmental risk assessment of explosives and munitions. The third collates case studies and innovative management techniques that have been applied to reduce remediation costs, enhance public perception and promote environmental best practice. The final section considers the design of ‘greener or insensitive munitions’ to reduce environmental impact.

Clear examples of how to identify soil and groundwater contamination from explosive activities have been brought together in this book. It outlines identification, monitoring and mitigation methodologies that prevent adverse environmental impact on military training ranges. It is the first time that examples of practical experiences from global perspectives have been brought together in one comprehensive volume. Historically this information has been inaccessible where it has been held in closed forums, published in different languages or restricted.

This book has been written for a non-technical audience, making it particularly beneficial to all those with a responsibility for environmental management of military training ranges and who are required to ensure sustainable long-term training capability.

The aim of this introduction is to summarise environmental management in the military context. It also outlines the chapter content by linking core concepts to the relevant individual chapters.

Introduction to environmental management

Environmental management is the process of managing, mitigating and preventing environmental impact from an organisations’ activities (ISO14001). Since the middle of the 19th century there has been increasing awareness regarding the impact of human activities on the environment and a concurrent increase in environmental legislative requirements in many countries. As well as being more stringent, environmental legislation has evolved to become more proactive; for example, older legislation was directed at specific issues, such as disease transmission in contaminated water. More recent legislation aims to minimise the generation of hazardous chemicals and prevent their access to the environment (e.g. the Regulation Evaluation Authorisation and restriction of Chemicals Regulation (REACH)).

Increasingly, legislation embeds key concepts such as ‘Polluter Pays’, i.e. ensuring that the organisation or person responsible for causing contamination must pay for remediation or clean-up. Or, the best available technology (BAT) principle that makes it a legislative requirement for large installations to keep up with industry standards of environmental protection. Chapter 11 specifically discusses the use of the BAT approach to select appropriate mitigation for small arms shooting ranges.

Environmental management systems have been developed to aid organisations demonstrate their compliance, and implement appropriate mitigation to minimise their environmental impact. Most nations have their own versions of environmental management systems, but large organisations commonly use internationally recognised standards such as ISO14001 (Environmental Management) and 14040 (Life Cycle Assessment) that are audited by a third-party (chapter 5 and chapter 13). In addition, the system will have a continuous review process that aims to ensure that the system is a ‘living’ requirement and incorporates plan, do, check act elements [1, 2].

Environmental management for defence

Defence related activities spanning all domains are not exempt from complying with environmental law, and must therefore be managed to ensure compliance with national and international legislation. However, the benefits of environmental management for defence can extend beyond compliance; for example, these practices assist with the prevention of penalties and fines for bad practice, improve perception issues and promote best practice. In addition, remediation costs for contaminated land can be minimised and ensure that environmental risks remain low. Frequent review and updating of management systems also ensures that new legislation is identified before an activity becomes non-compliant. Under current defence policy it is essential for military activities to comply with all environmental legislation. Where compliance is not possible exemptions may be obtained for specific activities and equipment that are non-compliant as they are essential for defence.

Environmental management for military training ranges

Compliance with environmental legislation is also applicable to live-firing on military training ranges. This is especially relevant as long-term live-training with munitions can lead to cumulative environmental impacts as the heavy metals and explosives deposited are known toxins and carcinogens [3, 4]. Historically, the impact of military training with live-fire munitions has not been extensively considered and training has been carried out wherever suitable locations have been found. This means landscapes around training ranges areas can vary enormously in and between nations. For example, in Australia many training ranges are situated in areas prone to bushfires (chapter 14), while in North America training ranges may be in deserts or on Marshland (chapter 8). In the UK, where space is at a premium, training ranges may be adjacent to residential areas, and in some areas have public access. These diverse settings can make environmental management difficult and this is due to different soil types, weather and topography. However, contextualised tools such as the source-pathway-receptor (SPR) pollutant linkage concept, which describes links between contaminants and receptors in the eco-system (e.g. flora and fauna) can be used to characterise training ranges and identify where mitigation is required as described in chapter 1 and chapter 12.

Explosive residue from live-firing with munitions has been considered minimal; however, explosives such as RDX, trinitrotoluene (TNT) and nitroguanidine (NG) are frequently detected in soils at heavily used firing and impact areas [5]. It is now known that although first order detonations consume almost all the explosive material, second-order-detonations, blow-in-place and open burning may result in the deposition of significant quantities of explosives. In addition, many training ranges have hundreds or thousands of buried unexploded ordnance (UXO), which are slowly corroding and leaching their chemical contents into the environment. The behaviour of explosives in the environment is discussed in chapter 1, and chapter 6 summarises techniques for assessing the health hazards posed by munitions constituents.

Once contamination has been identified in training areas it is essential to determine the extent by soil and water sampling. However, sampling may be undertaken to varying extents of efficiency depending on resource availability and motivation. The work described in chapter 2 and chapter 3 demonstrates the importance of using a reproducible and representative sampling method in order to ensure effective characterisation of the extent of contamination on training ranges. Similar efforts have been made to identify the extent of heavy metal contamination, as discussed in chapters 9 and 10. Suitable characterisation of contamination is required to ensure that risk is not under- or overestimated, and so that suitable remediation is selected (if appropriate). Chapter 7 summarises some of the remediation techniques used by the US EPA for explosively contaminated sites. The importance of suitable and efficient analytical techniques is outlined in chapter 4.

All of the above methods have been developed based on environmental impacts from legacy explosives and munitions currently in use. Although, emerging scientific approaches are being used to design munitions that have a reduced impact on the environment (chapter 15).

A summary of contributions

Section 1	Identification of explosive contamination on live-fire training ranges
Chapter 1	It is necessary to understand the impact of live-fire military training on the environment to ensure compliance with increasingly stringent legislation, maintain a positive public image and minimise the risk of incurring large clean-up costs. However, the impact of a particular munition product can vary significantly between sites depending on the physicochemical properties of the contaminant, the local geology and the local climate. This chapter outlines how simple conceptual models can be used to link activities to potential receptors, and summarises the computational and experimental methods used to investigate the behaviour of contaminants in the environment.
Principles of environmental range management (UK)
I Bortone, F Coulon, W Fawcett-Hirst, M Ladyman and T Temple
Chapter 2	It is becoming increasingly important to assess military training areas for contamination in order to ensure compliance with environmental legislation, to baseline contamination and to ensure the land is safe for use, sale or redevelopment. Characterisation of the concentration of contaminants in the soil across a whole site can be daunting, and is prone to error. Poor sampling strategies can result in up to 1000% error in the results due to inappropriate choice of sampling method, area and tools. This chapter summarises the development of the multi-increment (MI) sampling approach for accurately and reproducibly characterising explosively contaminated military training ranges. The results of a comprehensive research programme into effective sampling are summarised describing how to plan and conduct site characterisation, and how to interpret the data.
Characterization of soils on military training ranges (USA)
M R Walsh, M E Walsh, C A Ramsey, M F Bigl, and S A Beal
	Deposition of energetic and heavy metals from live-fire training may result in contamination of groundwater by the transport of contaminants from the soil surface. Therefore, an understanding of the hydrogeology of training sites is essential to ensure contamination is avoided, appropriately managed or, if necessary, remediated. Groundwater is rarely directly accessible and therefore observation wells are installed to enable sampling. This chapter summarises the procedure for installing wells for sampling groundwater on military training ranges from choosing a location to laboratory analysis.
The second half of the chapter focusses on the use of risk maps to visually demonstrate areas overlaying aquifers vulnerable to energetic material contamination within a training range. Risk is assessed based on the vulnerability of aquifers, and the hazard of the munitions. Risk maps can be used to improve environmental management of training ranges and to aid land-use decisions, e.g. situating high impact activities away from vulnerable areas.
Chapter 3 Hydrologeological characterization of military training ranges and production of maps for land management (Canada)
R Martel, S Brochu
Chapter 4 Analysis of explosives in the environment (UK) N Mai, J Pons, D McAteer, P P Gill	There are a number of analytical techniques available for providing detailed qualitative and quantitative information on soil and water contamination. No single technique is suitable for all situations or, indeed, is capable of detecting every type of explosive. This chapter discusses the main techniques used for the analysis of explosives in soils and water with a particular focus in the areas of sample preparation, spectroscopic, spectrometric and chromatographic procedures. A broad introduction is given to these major techniques, their applications and advantages, at a level that does not require the reader to have a detailed technical knowledge.
Section 2	Environmental risk assessment for munitions
Chapter 5	Due to the complexities of environmental fate and transport it is not possible to experimentally determine all potential toxicity impacts for all locations. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be employed in conjunction with munition emissions data to quantify environmental consequences from military training activities. The aim of LCA is to identify contributing factors to environmental toxicity of emissions in order to reduce their environmental impact. This can be achieved using a combination of emissions data, experimental data and predictive modelling software. This chapter summarises the advantages of LCA when used in conjunction with other management tools to assess the environmental impacts of military training.
Environmental management of military ranges with the support of a life cycle assessment approach (Portugal)
C Ferreira, J M Baranda Ribeiro
Chapter 6	Assessing the toxicity of munitions constituents and their combustion products during use is challenging, as the reaction products are highly dependent on the conditions of use and the climate. Currently, combustion products can be identified to a certain extent by predictive software and by capturing emissions from live detonations. However, both are limited. Predictive models rely on assumptions, and cannot take into account all environmental conditions. On the other hand, there are no standard experimental methods for capturing emissions and results can be compromised by the chosen sampling point location, volume of sampling area, frequency of firing and degradation between capture and analysis. In addition, subsequent determination of the toxicity of these compounds, particularly in mixtures, is limited by the lack of standardised methods, and difficulty in relating cellular or animal test results to humans. This chapter summarises the current state of the art in assessing the hazards posed by munitions related compounds and their combustion products. Also, recommendations are made for improvement of predictive models, the setup for experiments aimed at analysis of emissions, and toxicological evaluations.
Hazard assessment of exposure to ammunition-related constituents and combustion products (Netherlands)
M van Hulst, J P Langenberg, W P C de Klerk
Chapter 7 Review of remediation technologies for energetics contamination in the US (USA) H Craig	A review into the use of energetic materials in munitions specifically in manufacturing, load, assemble and pack (LAP), and demilitarisation that have caused contamination with examples is outlined in this chapter. Consideration to toxicity and environmental risk assessment is included and are used to emphasise the requirement for the development and application of soil and groundwater remediation technologies over the past 30 years. The remediation technologies are covered in great detail by the use of clear and representative case studies; it also includes the US EPA perspective.
Section 3	Case studies: military live-fire training range management
Chapter 8	A summary of significant findings from over fifteen years of range characterisation and monitoring focusing on the species and concentration of energetic material deposition. The data are compiled from two Alaskan live-fire training areas and provide case studies of the magnitude of contamination from different range activities such as firing, impact, small arms training and demolition. The studies found that high concentrations of propellant were observed at the propellant burn site, demolition range and some firing points. High explosives were identified at impact areas, particularly around impact craters from low order detonations and demolition ranges. Groundwater and surface impacts were not evident.
Characterization and monitoring of energetic compounds on training ranges: case studies in Alaska, United States (USA)
S A Beal, T A Douglas, G W Larsen, M F Bigl, M E Walsh, M R Walsh
Chapter 9	Due to the ubiquity of lead, antimony and copper in small arms ammunition, contamination of shooting ranges has become a widespread issue. Lead is of particular concern due to quantity, public awareness and the well-known toxicity. Moreover, due to technical advances the detection and quantification of lead in soils and groundwater has become easier. With increasing environmental concentrations, these metals may pose a significant risk to local ecosystems and ultimately human health. Therefore, it is essential to be able to identify and quantify areas with high levels of contamination, and in consequence reduce the environmental risk associated to pollution from shooting practices. This chapter summarises the method for identifying and quantifying contamination on Swiss military shooting ranges in order to determine whether, and to what extent, remediation is required.
Heavy metal contamination on small arms shooting ranges (Switzerland)
R Kaiser, O Hausheer
Chapter 10	The Borris Shooting range in Denmark has been used for a range of military activities from small arms to anti-tank training for at least fifty years. Due to the high usage, and sensitive location – on sandy soil near to a stream commonly used for fishing—the range was characterised (surveyed) for energetic material and heavy metal contamination using multi-increment sampling. Of the six areas sampled, both energetic material and heavy metal contamination was detected slightly above background levels in soil and surface water, but below recommended threshold levels. Sampling of the stream identified no heightened levels of heavy metals suggesting that contamination is currently contained within the range. Due to low levels of contamination, it was recommended that training activities could continue with no immediate requirement for remediation.
Metal and energetic survey of Borris shooting range (Denmark)
P de Lasson
Chapter 11	Live-fire training is essential to maintain defence capability; however, contamination of soil and groundwater caused by munitions constituents has incurred large clean-up costs and inhibited the sale or reuse of contaminated areas. With increasing public awareness and the introduction of more stringent environmental legislation it is necessary to avoid and mitigate further contamination where possible. This chapter outlines some of the innovative solutions developed to prevent migration of energetic materials and metals contamination from the source to receptors such as fixed and mobile burn pans, absorptive membranes and in situ remediation methods.
Mitigation of the environmental footprint of a munition (ST, RM, SB, MRW) (Canada and USA)
S Thiboutot, R Martel, S Brochu, M R Walsh
Chapter 12	The Brazilian Army stores and disposes of ammunitions in a handful of depots and, considering that continuous disposal of explosives can impact the environment, this work shows the results of almost ten years of continuous environmental assessment of soil, groundwater and vegetation of the largest Brazilian Army depot.
Environmental assessment at a Brazilian army site (Brazil)
M E S Marques, E F Galante, M de M Reis, M C Barbosa
Chapter 13 Bushfire management (Australia) L Brennan	The Australian Department of Defence manages 150 parcels of land that are prone to bushfires. These areas require careful management to ensure human life and property are protected in an environmentally sustainable way while maintaining defence capability. This chapter outlines the Australian Department of Defence approach to bushfire management, which must ensure safety, comply with governmental and defence policy and consider public perception. Case studies of wildfire incidents are given to demonstrate how improvements in land management can reduce environmental and safety risks.
Section 4	Environmental considerations in munition design
Chapter 14	The requirement for munitions to be high performing, safe to handle and have low environmental impact often requires a trade-off in properties. For example, insensitive high explosives meet the required safety profile, but have been found to deposit more residue on ranges through low order detonations compared to their predecessors. On the other hand, it may be possible to improve the environmental performance of current formulations during the manufacturing process, but the safety profile would remain the same. With many, often contradictory, factors to consider it can be difficult to make an informed decision on which formulation to use. This chapter describes the development and use of a decision matrix tool to select an explosive candidate to replace in-service formulations that most successfully meets the safety, environmental and performance criteria.
Greener or insensitive munitions: Selecting the best option (Canada)
S Brochu