Читать книгу Essential Endocrinology and Diabetes - Richard I. G. Holt - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Chemical signalling in the endocrine and neural systems. (a) In e...Figure 1.2 The sites of the principal endocrine glands. While the stomach, k...Figure 1.3 The structures of vasopressin and oxytocin are remarkably similar...Figure 1.4 Control systems regulating hormone production and circulating lev...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Cell division. Prior to mitosis and meiosis, the cell undergoes a...Figure 2.2 Schematic representation of a gene, transcription and translation...Figure 2.3 (a) Peptide hormone‐synthesizing and (b) steroid hormone‐synthesi...Figure 2.4 Potential post‐translational modifications of peptide hormones. F...Figure 2.5 Synthesis of cholesterol. Step ① is catalyzed by the enzyme thiol...Figure 2.6 Overview of the major steroidogenic pathways. Yellow shading indi...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 The different classes of hormone receptor. Some cell‐surface rece...Figure 3.2 Basic components of a membrane‐spanning cell‐surface receptor. Th...Figure 3.3 Hormone–receptor systems are saturable. Increasing amounts of lab...Figure 3.4 Hormone–receptor interactions are reversible. Constant amounts of...Figure 3.5 Intracellular signalling via phosphorylation. (a) Amino acids ser...Figure 3.6 The insulin receptor and a simplified view of its signalling path...Figure 3.7 Growth hormone (GH) signalling and its antagonism. GH binds to it...Figure 3.8 Growth hormone (GH) receptor and its signalling pathways. The rec...Figure 3.9 Laron syndrome showing truncal obesity. This boy presented aged 1...Figure 3.10 G‐protein–coupled receptors. The extracellular domain is ligand‐...Figure 3.11 Second messengers that mediate G‐protein–coupled receptor signal...Figure 3.12 Hormonal activation of G‐protein–coupled receptors can link to d...Figure 3.13 Familial male precocious puberty (‘testotoxicosis’). This 2‐year...Figure 3.14 McCune–Albright syndrome. At 6 years of age, this girl presented...Figure 3.15 The activation of protein kinase A, a cAMP‐dependent protein kin...Figure 3.16 Hormonal stimulation of intracellular phospholipid turnover and ...Figure 3.17 Eicosanoid signalling. Arachidonic acid, released by phospholipa...Figure 3.18 Simplified schematic of nuclear hormone action. (a) Free hormone...Figure 3.19 The nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. The receptors, named a...Figure 3.20 Nuclear hormone receptor–DNA interactions. (a) Steroid hormone r...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The basics of immunoassay are shown for growth hormone (GH; see t...Figure 4.2 The basics of an immunometric assay for growth hormone (GH; also ...Figure 4.3 The basics of an immunoassay for thyroxine (T4; also see text). A...Figure 4.4 Fluorescent in situ hybridization in a patient with congenital hy...Figure 4.5 The basic principles of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR ...Figure 4.6 Ultrasound of a polycystic ovary. The presence of multiple small ...Figure 4.7 Abdominal computed tomography (CT) with contrast. This patient pr...Figure 4.8 Magnetic resonance imaging of a pituitary tumour. (a) T1‐weighted...Figure 4.9 mIBG uptake by a phaeochromocytoma. A whole‐body I¹²³ mIBG scan w...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The human pituitary gland forms at ∼8 weeks of development. The b...Figure 5.2 Highly simplified structure of the hypothalamus and its neural an...Figure 5.3 Visual field assessment. There is a bitemporal loss of the lower ...Figure 5.4 Endocrine feedback circuits. The diagram shows interactions betwe...Figure 5.5 Summary of the regulation and effects of growth hormone (GH). Som...Figure 5.6 A 24‐h profile of serum growth hormone (GH) in a normal 7‐year‐ol...Figure 5.7 Dynamic tests of growth hormone (GH) status. (a) In an oral gluco...Figure 5.8 Two patients with acromegaly. (a) Patient 1. Note the large facia...Figure 5.9 Short stature due to growth hormone (GH) deficiency and the effec...Figure 5.10 Summary of the regulation and effects of prolactin. For the infl...Figure 5.11 The cleavage of pro‐opiomelanocortin (POMC). Adrenocorticotrophi...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Development of the adrenal gland. The cortex is derived in part f...Figure 6.2 Section through the adrenal cortex. (a) The blood vessels run fro...Figure 6.3 Biosynthesis of adrenocortical steroid hormones. HSD3B activity i...Figure 6.4 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–adrenal axis. Higher brain fu...Figure 6.5 Typical diurnal variations in serum cortisol. Levels peak in the ...Figure 6.6 The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone axis. A fall in extracellular f...Figure 6.7 The structure of a nephron and the juxtaglomerular apparatus. (a)...Figure 6.8 The effects of glucocorticoid excess in Cushing disease and the b...Figure 6.9 Cushing syndrome due to an adrenocortical adenoma secreting corti...Figure 6.10 Ambiguous genitalia of a 46,XX infant with congenital adrenal hy...Figure 6.11 The synthesis, storage and release of catecholamines from the ch...Figure 6.12 The synthesis (upper half) and degradation (lower half) of catec...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Sex determination and sex differentiation. (a) Cross‐section of a...Figure 7.2 Differentiation of the internal genitalia. (a) The bipotential sta...Figure 7.3 Development of the external genitalia. DHT, 5α‐dihydrotestosteron...Figure 7.4 Genitalia of a 2‐year old with a 46,XY difference in sex developm...Figure 7.5 A testis in cross‐section. (a) The testis is organized into lobul...Figure 7.6 The structure of the seminiferous tubule. Sertoli cells span the ...Figure 7.7 The biosynthesis of androgens in Leydig cells. Earlier steps can ...Figure 7.8 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–testicular axis. Negative fee...Figure 7.9 The stages of pubertal development in males and females as define...Figure 7.10 Follicle growth, maturation and ovulation. The entire process ta...Figure 7.11 The 28‐day menstrual cycle. The start of menstruation is day 1 o...Figure 7.12 The two‐cell biosynthesis of oestrogens. Luteinizing hormone (LH...Figure 7.13 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–ovarian axis. Note the varia...Figure 7.14 Changes in the uterine endometrium during the menstrual cycle. (...Figure 7.15 The role of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) in postponing me...Figure 7.16 Steroid production in the feto‐placental unit.

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 The thyroid gland and its downward migration. The point of origin...Figure 8.2 Histology of the human thyroid gland. (a) Euthyroid follicles are...Figure 8.3 The structures of active and inactive thyroid hormones and their ...Figure 8.4 Thyroid hormone biosynthesis within the follicular cell. Active i...Figure 8.5 A large goitre caused by iodine deficiency in rural Africa. Note ...Figure 8.6 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–thyroid axis. The more active...Figure 8.7 Metabolism of thyroid hormones in the circulation. Four times mor...Figure 8.8 Hyperthyroidism caused by Graves disease in a young woman. The do...Figure 8.9 Complications of Graves disease. (a–c) Examples of thyroid eye di...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Calcium homeostasis. In an adult, daily net absorption from the g...Figure 9.2 The sources and metabolism of vitamin D.Figure 9.3 Synthesis of calcitriol. (a) UV irradiation opens the B ring of 7...Figure 9.4 Effects of changing Ca²⁺ and PO₄ ³⁻ on renal hydroxylation ...Figure 9.5 Section through the fetal pharynx illustrating development of the...Figure 9.6 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion in response to serum Ca²⁺. (a...Figure 9.7 Short fourth metacarpals in pseudohypoparathyroidism.Figure 9.8 Venous sampling for parathyroid hormone (PTH) prior to surgery to...Figure 9.9 Bone remodelling. Mechanical stress influences bone remodelling w...Figure 9.10 Changes in bone mass during life in men and women.Figure 9.11 Rickets. (a) Bowing of the tibiae in a 3‐year‐old. (b) Radiologi...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 A pancreatic islet surrounded by exocrine tissue. β‐cells are de...Figure 10.2 Congenital hyperinsulinism (diffuse form). Immunohistochemistry ...Figure 10.3 Necrolytic migratory erythema in a man with the glucagonoma synd...Figure 10.4 Synthesis and degradation of serotonin. *Rate‐limiting step: two...Figure 10.5 Two mechanisms for tumour formation. Mutated or silenced genes a...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Worldwide prevalence of diabetes in 2019 with projected figures ...Figure 11.2 International Diabetes Federation estimates of the current and p...Figure 11.3 The Amadori reaction leading to the formation of glycated haemog...Figure 11.4 Representative distribution of fasting plasma glucose within the...Figure 11.5 Relationship between plasma glycated haemoglobin and microvascul...Figure 11.6 Insulin synthesis and secretion from the β cells of pancreatic i...Figure 11.7 The endocrine pancreas. (a) Small clusters of cells, the islets ...Figure 11.8 Characteristic biphasic release of insulin.Figure 11.9 Mechanism of insulin secretion. After uptake, glucose is metabol...Figure 11.10 Insulin signalling cascade. IRS, insulin receptor substrate; PI...Figure 11.11 Regulation of blood glucose concentration. Tissue utilization o...Figure 11.12 Inter‐relationships among alternative routes of glucose metabol...Figure 11.13 Regulation of acetyl co‐enzyme A (CoA) carboxylase by allosteri...Figure 11.14 The synergistic actions of insulin, IGF‐I, and GH on protein sy...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Annual number of new cases of type 1 diabetes per 100,000 childr...Figure 12.2 Life‐expectancy and type 1 diabetes in a Scottish cohort. Life‐e...Figure 12.3 The natural history of type 1 diabetes. In stage 1, an autoimmun...Figure 12.4 Pictures of one of the first people with diabetes to receive ins...Figure 12.5 Normal insulin secretion throughout a 24‐h period. There is a lo...Figure 12.6 The timeline of the development of insulin. Banting and Best fir...Figure 12.7 Schematic of the time action of profiles of various insulin prep...Figure 12.8 Schematic representation of insulin profiles with different regi...Figure 12.9 Sites for injection.Figure 12.10 (a) An old insulin needle and syringe. (b) A modern insulin syr...Figure 12.11 (a) Person with type 1 diabetes wearing a Medtronic Minimed Mio...Figure 12.12 Freestyle Optium Neo glucose meter.Figure 12.13 (a) Man wearing Freestyle Libre sensor in the kitchen; (b) Woma...Figure 12.14 Hypoglycaemia unawareness. The thresholds for activation of hyp...Figure 12.15 Biochemistry of diabetic ketoacidosis. Hormone‐sensitive lipase...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Prevalence of diabetes in selected countries in the age range of...Figure 13.2 Top ten countries for number of people with diabetes in the age ...Figure 13.3 Diabetes prevalence in white US men and women by age (2015).Figure 13.4 Risk of developing diabetes according to body mass index in 114,...Figure 13.5 The pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. The cardinal features ar...Figure 13.6 (a) Endogenous insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes and under no...Figure 13.7 Natural history of insulin resistance and insulin secretion in t...Figure 13.8 (a) Under normal physiological conditions, the renal tubule re‐a...Figure 13.9 The imperative for screening for type 2 diabetes. It is estimate...Figure 13.10 Main sites of action for antidiabetes agents. Different antidia...Figure 13.11 Ligand‐activated nuclear hormone receptors (review Chapter 3). ...Figure 13.12 Thiazolidinediones: mode of action. After the thiazolidinedione...Figure 13.13 How thiazolidinediones enhance insulin action and normalize blo...Figure 13.14 Actions of GLP‐1 and mode of action of DPP‐4 inhibitors and GLP...Figure 13.15 Gastrointestinal carbohydrate digestion and site of action of a...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 The chronic microvascular and macrovascular complications of dia...Figure 14.2 Effect of improved glycaemic management on diabetes (DM) related...Figure 14.3 Molecular mechanisms that may be important in the generation of ...Figure 14.4 Sorbitol Polyol Pathway. The normal function of aldose reductase...Figure 14.5 Retinal photographs reproduced with the kind permission of the U...Figure 14.6 A suggested plan for annual screening for kidney disease in diab...Figure 14.7 Algorithm for management of painful neuropathy in people with di...Figure 14.8 Plantar ulcer in a person with diabetes. Note how dry the skin a...Figure 14.9 Infected diabetic ulcer on the dorsum of the foot.Figure 14.10 (a) The combination of infection and vascular disease puts the ...Figure 14.11 Active Charcot arthropathy.Figure 14.12 Plantar ulcer in a patient with diabetes whose foot has become ...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 The global prevalence of obesity in 2016.Figure 15.2 All‐cause mortality versus BMI for men and women in the range 15...Figure 15.3 Model of regulation of food intake. Appetite is stimulated by ne...Figure 15.4 What is a successful outcome?Figure 15.5 Rationale of 500 kcal deficit diet.Figure 15.6 Additive effects of diet and drugs.