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The current management practices have evolved from earlier theories. Management practices were part of the governance in ancient Samaria and Egypt as far back as 3,000 b.c. (Daft & Marcic, 2015). Most of our current understanding of management, however, is based on theories of management that were introduced during the industrial age as factories developed and manufacturing flourished. Some of these theories are discussed in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Management Theories

Management theory	Key aspects
Scientific ManagementGulick & Urwick (1937), Mooney & Reiley (1939), Taylor (1947)	Focuses on goals and productivity; organization is a machine to be run efficiently to increase production.Selects the right person to do the job; provides the proper tools, training, and equipment to work efficiently.Uses time and motion studies to make the work efficient.
Bureaucratic ManagementWeber (1864)	Focuses on hierarchical superior‐subordinate communication transmitted from top to bottom via a clear chain of command.Uses rational, impersonal management; distributes activities among personnel.Uses merit and skill as basis for promotion and/or reward.Uses rules and regulations; focuses on exacting work processes and technical competence.Limits personal freedom.Emphasizes career service, salaried managers.
Human RelationsArgyris (1964), Barnard (1938), Likert (1967), McGregor (1960)Roethlisberger & Dickson (1939)	Focuses on empowerment of the individual worker as the source of control, motivation, and productivity in meeting the organization's goals.Emphasizes that participatory decision making increases worker autonomy and provides training to improve work.Studies at the Hawthorne Western Electric plant in Cicero, Illinois, led to the belief that human relations between workers and managers and among workers are the main determinants of efficiency.The Hawthorne effect refers to the phenomena of how being observed or studied results in a change in behavior.

Note. Compiled with information from Burns, L. R., Bradley, E. H., & Weiner, B. J. (2020). Shortell & Kaluzny’s health care management: Organization design and behavior. 6th ed. Chapter 4: Motivating People). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.