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2.3.5 Humans

HMs are among one of the widespread pollutants in the world, which cause severe threats to almost every organism including humans. In agricultural soils, HMs like Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations are 0.097, 22.6, 26.0, and 74.2 mg/kg, respectively and can even reach 3.16, 99.3, 84.1, and 147 mg/kg, respectively. In water, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations are 0.080, 7.91, 15.7, and 18.7 ug/l respectively and cause contamination in drinking water and food that threatens human health [52]. Occupational exposures to Mn, Cu, Fe, Hg, Zn, and Al pose a risk factor for Parkinson's disease [53, 54]. Rice grown on Cd contaminated soils causes Cd loaded grains and poses kidney failure in humans consuming the contaminated rice [55–57]. Table 2.1 defines HM effects on plants and humans.

Table 2.1 Effect of different heavy metals on plants and humans.

Heavy metals	Effects on plants	Citations	Effects on Humans	Citations
As	Growth, leaf gas‐exchange, water potential, protein content, and biomass.	[58–61]	Carcinogen, cyto, and genotoxic, cause diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and disrupts DNA repair.	[62–66]
Al	Decreases in biomass, photosynthesis, protein contents, disrupts NPK, Ca, Mg uptake	[67–70]	Neuro, geno, and cytotoxic, damages membrane and DNA, cause chromosomal and lymphocyte aberrations.	[71, 72]
Cr	Damages rhizobia, production of ROS and oxidative stress, low seed germination and reduced nutrient uptake	[73–76]	Carcinogen, damages DNA and reproductive system with birth and growth defects.	[73–77]
Ni	Reduces growth and photosynthetic pigment contents, low crop growth, increases imbalance between K and Ca	[78–80]	Cardiovascular diseases, haemo, immuno, neuro, geno, nephron, and hepatotoxic, carcinogen and cause reproductive system illness.	[81, 82]
Cu	Low yield, failure in making seed, less photosynthetic rate, ROS production, cell damage, disturbs photosynthesis and electron transport.	[83, 84]	Cardiovascular system and disrupts enzymes activity.	[85, 88]
Pb	Stunted growth, chlorosis and blackening of root system, inhibit photosynthesis, upset water balance, changes affects membrane structure.	[89, 90]	Mental retardation, growth impairment, comma, convulsions, anemia, hypertension, and immunotoxicity.	[91, 92]
Cd	Reduction in soil biota, stomata opening, transpiration, and photosynthesis.	[[93–95]	Carcinogen, negative impact on cardiovascular, immune and reproductive system, nephrotoxic.	[96–98]
Zn	Inhibition of several enzymes lowers photosynthesis rate.	[99, 100]	Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, kidney, and stomach damage, burning, stinging, itching	[86, 101, 102]
Hg	Reduces soil microbes, poor plant growth, reduced nutrient uptake, and reduced seed germination, decreased biomass.	[103–105]	Neurobehavioral defects, walking, vision, hearing, and speech is affected	[65, 91, 106]

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