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1 4 René Descartes, extract from Part V of ‘Discourse on the Method’ [Discours de la méthode, 1637], from pp. 139–40 of The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, vol. I trans. John Cottingham, R. Stoothoff and D. Murdoch, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). © 1985 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.

2 8 Gottlob Frege, ‘Sense and Reference’, from the article ‘Sense and Reference’ [Sinnund Bedeutung, 1892], pp. 56–62 from the English version in Peter Geach and Max Black (ed.), Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege (Oxford: Blackwell, 1952). © 1952 John Wiley & Sons. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

3 9 Bertrand Russell, extracts from Ch.16 from Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy [London: Allen & Unwin, 1919]. Reproduced with permission of Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation.

4 10 Ludwig Wittgenstein, pp. 1–6, 77–79 from The Blue and Brown Books (Oxford: Blackwell, 1958). © 1958 by Basil Blackwell, renewed 1986 by Basil Blackwell Limited. Reproduced with permission of HarperCollins Publishers.

5 11 J. L. Austin, ‘Performative Utterances’, reprinted in J. L. Austin, Philosophical Papers, ed. J. O. Urmson and G. J. Warnock (3rd edn, Oxford: Clarendon, 1979), pp. 233–52.

6 12 Saul Kripke, Naming and Necessity [1972] (rev. 2nd edn, Oxford: Blackwell, 1980). © 1980 John Wiley & Sons. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.