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1 3 René Descartes, extracts from parts v and vi from Discourse on the Method [Discourse de la Méthode, 1637], pp. 131–4, 142–4 from John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff and Dugald Murdoch (ed. and trans.), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). © 1986 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.

2 4 George Berkeley, pp. 1–5, 11, 17–18, 26–8, 35–41, 52–3, 58, 67, 71–2 from On Motion [De Motu, 1721], from A. A. Luce and T. E. Jessop (ed.), The Works of George Berkeley, trans. A. A. Luce (London: Nelson, 1948–51).

3 7 Immanuel Kant, ‘Analogies of Experience: Second Analogy’, B 233–42 from Critique of Pure Reason [Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781; 2nd edn 1787], pp. 218–24 (with omissions and minor modifications) from N. Kemp Smith (ed.), Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (London: Macmillan, 1929, repr. 1965). Translation © The Estate of Norman Kemp Smith 1929, 1933, 2003. Reproduced with permission of Springer Nature.

4 9 Karl Popper, ‘Conjectures and Refutations’, from ‘Science: Conjectures and Refutations’; lecture delivered in 1953 and originally published under the title ‘Philosophy of Science: A Personal Report’, chapter 1 (abridged) from Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge, 1963; 3rd edn 1969). © 1969 by Karl Popper. Reproduced with permission of Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt/Karl Popper collection.

5 10 Carl G. Hempel, ‘Explanation in Science and in History’, pp. 7–33 (abridged) from R. G. Colodny (ed.), Frontiers of Science and Philosophy (London and Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962). © 1962. Reproduced with permission of University of Pittsburgh Press.

6 11 Grover Maxwell, ‘The Ontological Status of Theoretical Entities’, pp. 3–15 (abridged) from Herbert Feigl and Grover Maxwell (ed.), Scientific Explanation, Space, and Time, vol. 3, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962). © 1962 by University of Minnesota Press. Reproduced with permission of University of Minnesota Press.

7 12 Thomas S. Kuhn, chapters 2, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, pp. 10–11, 64–5, 76–7, 81–3, 93–5, 112, 117–18 from The Structure of Scientific Revolutions [1962] (2nd edn, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). © 1970 University of Chicago Press. Reproduced with permission of University of Chicago Press.