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A variety of special pathology techniques are important adjuncts to mouse research. These include immunohistochemistry (IHC), in situ hybridization (ISH), ultrastructure, imaging, image analysis, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and a variety of molecular techniques. Most chapters will include examples of these for the various tissues. Some publications offer reviews of the use of IHC in mice [39–42] and Internet sites offer IHC protocols (http://tumor.informatics.jax.org/mtbwi/index.do, https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/protocols/protocols‐immuno/index.cfm) and whole slide images (http://tumor.informatics.jax.org/mtbwi/lymphomaPathology.jsp).

Histopathology scoring (grading) of lesion type and severity can often be used for mouse models of disease, genetics, and preclinical development for drugs [6, 34,43–45]. Examples are given in some chapters. The newer fields of image analysis, artificial intelligence, and machine learning are growing quickly [46, 47] and allow scientific analysis of quantitative pathology data.