Читать книгу The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics - Carol A. Chapelle - Страница 199

Audiovisual products are typically created with the support of technological apparatus. Movie making traditionally involves the use of cameras and celluloid, the creation of Web pages requires a computer and specialized software, and so on. Similarly, many audiovisual products are also consumed by means of diverse technological media. Cinema screens, television sets, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and videogame consoles are examples of equipment normally adopted in order to make use of audiovisuals. Furthermore, filmic products can be accessed by means of terrestrial, satellite, or cable networks, in DVD format or in streaming from a computer connected to the World Wide Web. Likewise, their translations are both created and accessed through one or more electronic devices, hence the overlap with the alternative and all inclusive term, “multimedia translation.” For example, an AVT modality such as subtitling involves the use of sophisticated software while dubbing and voice‐over require specific hardware. In addition, users access these translations by means of screens (i.e., cinema, TV, computer, and smartphone screens) hence another overlapping term “screen translation.”

However, not all AVT involves screens. Theatrical productions such as musicals, as well as opera, are examples of audiovisual products that are traditionally performed live on stage. Typically, operas are performed in their original languages while audiences follow the written lyrics in translation in librettos. Speakers of the language in which the opera is performed also resort to librettos to help them understand what the characters are singing as the lyrics may be difficult to understand owing to the particular stress, pitch, and rhythm required by the conventions of the genre. Librettos thus exemplify intralingual translations which, unlike interlingual translation that regards language transfer between two different languages, concern the interpretation of verbal signs into a different system of signs in the same language (see Jakobson, 1959). Nowadays, however, opera translation is becoming highly technological with translations projected onto the proscenium in the form of surtitles or else provided in electronic librettos on the back of theatre seats.

Again, while not being strictly audiovisual, in the sense that the reader cannot actually listen to them, comic books have much in common with audiovisual products and the process of their translation involves similar constraints. Comic books consist of a series of framed images with dialogues contained in speech and thought bubbles linked to characters' mouths in such a way that evokes real dialogue. Furthermore, much of the conventional language in comic books has a highly aural flavor reflected in words, often placed outside speech bubbles, such as “boom!,” “vroom!,” “zoink!,” and “zzzzzzzz.” Graphic frames and dialogues come together to create a narrative that unfolds in real time rather like that of a film. So, although comic book images are static, readers are able to imagine speech and noise while following the sequential framework. Thus they can be placed on the interface between print texts and screen products such as films and video games. Significantly, there is a strong tradition of comic characters that subsequently developed into filmic, animated, or both filmic and animated form (e.g., Batman, Spiderman) while the late 20th century saw the expansion of traditional Japanese comic books, manga, into a new form of animated cartoon known as anime which have since flourished into a global industry; for example, Pokemon and Dragon Ball (see Zanettin, 2008, 2014).