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Introduction

On June 18, 1812, United States President James Madison signed a declaration of war against Great Britain. Ostensibly, this war was to redress America’s long-standing grievances over Atlantic maritime trading rights and offences against U.S. citizens being “press ganged” into the Royal Navy. However, it also had the underlying goal of eliminating the presence and influence of Great Britain on the North American continent — a situation promoted by a group of militant U.S. nationalists (“War Hawks”), pressing an expansionist cause that in later decades would be referred to as manifest destiny. Publicly, this war was promoted as simply requiring U.S. troops to march into the welcoming heart of Britain’s Canadian colonies and evict the veteran colonial power without significant difficulty or complications before the end of the year. However, once it began, the reality of the war in 1812 to conquer Canada turned out to be something else entirely, and a nasty surprise to boot — one where the Americans lost every major engagement in which they fought.

This earlier part of the story is recounted in the first book in this six-part series, The Call to Arms. This work, The Pendulum of War, takes up that story in order to trace the course of the war into the first six months of 1813 on the “Northern” frontier. For those who have not read the first work, the following timeline should provide a background to the events that are documented here.

TIMELINE OF EVENTS

 November 4, 1811: [Washington] In U.S. congressional elections, anti-British War Hawk representatives dominate the new electoral body of Congress.

 December 6, 1811: [Washington] U.S. War Hawk Peter B. Porter, chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, reports to the Senate, advocating his committee’s position of declaring war against Great Britain by way of invading and occupying its Canadian colonies.

 June 17/18, 1812: [Washington] The U.S. Senate passes the vote to declare war on Great Britain. President Madison signs the declaration of war.

 July 1–2, 1812: [Detroit frontier] News of the U.S. declaration of war reaches Fort Amherstburg (Malden) at Amherstburg (Upper Canada) before it is received by the U.S. forces on the other side of the Detroit River. This allows British forces to surprise, intercept, and capture the U.S. vessel Cuyahoga, finding on board the entire military papers of Brigadier General William Hull and revealing vital intelligence of U.S. plans and dispositions for the Detroit frontier.

 July 12, 1812: [Detroit frontier] Despite the loss of his papers, Brigadier General Hull launches an invasion of Upper Canada at Sandwich (Windsor). Hull then issues a proclamation of “liberation” to the residents of Upper Canada.

 July 15–17, 1812: [Upper Canada] News of the declaration of war reaches the British Fort St. Joseph, at the head of Lake Huron, before the nearby American base at Michilimackinac (Mackinac). In response, a combined force of British, Canadian, and Native troops mount an attack against the unprepared American garrison, forcing it to surrender without a shot being fired.

 July 22, 1812: [Upper Canada] Upper Canada governor, Major General Isaac Brock, issues an official rebuttal and repudiation of General Hull’s demands for the surrender of Upper Canada to the Americans.

 August 1, 1812: [Lower Canada] News arrives at Quebec City that the British government has repealed its contentious Orders-in-Council affecting American maritime trading rights with Britain’s wartime enemy, France. Because these issues were cited by the American government as the principal reason and cause for the war being declared, Sir George Provost writes to Major General Henry Dearborn, recommending an armistice until the U.S. government’s position on settling the outstanding issues between the two governments is known. As a result, a regional suspension of hostilities is established.

 August 11, 1812: [Detroit frontier] Hearing that Major General Brock is sending reinforcements to the Detroit frontier, Brigadier General Hull abandons the American invasion into Upper Canada and retreats back across the Detroit River

 August 13, 1812: [Washington] President Madison and Secretary of War William Eustis officially reject the armistice proposals made by Sir George Prevost and order a recommencement of hostilities to conquer Canada.

 August 16, 1812: [Detroit frontier] British forces under Major General Brock, supported by Native allies under Tecumseh, cross the Detroit River, advance on Detroit, and intimidate Brigadier General Hull into surrendering his entire garrison. In addition, the Territory of Michigan is deemed as being ceded to the British Crown and becomes a de-facto part of Upper Canada.

 October 13, 1812: [Niagara frontier] The Battle of Queenston Heights. U.S. forces invade Upper Canada at Queenston and succeed in establishing a beachhead that controls the village and the “heights.” Major General Brock is killed leading a direct frontal counterattack. Later in the day, Major General Roger Sheaffe arrives with reinforcements from Fort George at Newark, leads a successful flanking counterattack upon the American position, and routs their line. During the course of the battle, many U.S. militia troops stand on their constitutional rights and refuse to cross into Upper Canada to participate in the invasion.

 November 28, 1812: [Niagara frontier] The Battle of Frenchman’s Creek. U.S. forces make landings at Fort Erie and Frenchman’s Creek in an attempt to create a bridgehead for an invasion. While initially successful and overrunning the riverside batteries, British countermoves cause many American troops to abandon the attempt and leave in the remaining boats, stranding the remainder of the American force. As a result, British counterattacks quickly retake the positions and fend off a follow-up wave of American boats bringing reinforcements. In response, U.S. forces at Buffalo effectively mutiny against their commander, Brigadier General Alexander Smyth, and the threat of invasion of Upper Canada collapses on the Niagara frontier.

 December 3, 1812: [Washington] U.S. Secretary of War William Eustis resigns under a cloud of criticism for his mishandling of the American war effort to date.