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Clinical Obesity in Adults and Children
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Страница 1
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
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List of Abbreviations
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1 Obesity – Introduction: History and the Scale of the Problem Worldwide
Obesity as a public health problem
Lower limits of BMIs in non‐Caucasians?
Morbidity burden starts at much lower BMIs
Obesity epidemic starts in the early 1980s
The global epidemic gets underway
Abdominal obesity
Different regional societal burdens of obesity with abdominal obesity
Historical analyses of contributors to obesity
Marked declines in society’s physical activity
A revolution in food industrial strategies which increase food intakes
The burden of obesity
The economic impact of excess weight gain
Conclusions
References
2 The Epidemiology and Social Determinants of Obesity
Introduction
Defining excess body fat
Adult obesity
Childhood obesity
Global obesity
Social determinants of obesity
National economic development
Individual socioeconomic status
Urbanization
Technology
Crime
Culture
Conclusions
References
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3 Fetal and Infant Origins of Obesity
Background
Assessing obesity in children
Conceptual frameworks
Study designs
Developmental risk factors
Maternal overnutrition
Maternal diet quality
Environmental chemicals
Infant growth patterns and timing
Infant diet quality and eating behaviors
Other behaviors in infancy
Biology and mechanisms
Epigenetics
Mediating metabolic factors
Gut microbiota
Estimating population attributable risks
Implications for policy and practice
Acknowledgments
References
4 Genes and Obesity
Introduction
Historical perspective
Gene–environment interactions
Evidence for the heritability of fat mass
Adoption studies
Twin studies
Pleiotropic obesity syndromes
Prader–Willi syndrome
Albright hereditary osteodystrophy
Bardet–Biedl syndrome
Molecular mechanisms involved in energy homeostasis
Rodent models of obesity
Leptin–melanocortin pathway
Monogenic obesity syndromes affecting the leptin‐melanocortin pathway Congenital leptin deficiency
Response to leptin therapy
Leptin receptor deficiency
POMC deficiency
Prohormone convertase 1 deficiency
MC4R deficiency
Genes that affect the development and function of POMC neurons
Obesity syndromes associated with neurobehavioral phenotypes
Conclusions
References
5 Bias, Stigma, and Social Consequences of Obesity
Social consequences for adults
Employment and wages
Health care
Social consequences for youth
Education
Peer victimization
Impact of weight stigma on health
Discrimination
Teasing and bullying
Internalization
Interventions to prevent and reduce weight stigma
Laws
Policies and training
Clinical intervention
Conclusion
References
6 Ecology, Protein Leverage, and Public Health
Introduction
An ecological view of nutrition The simple and the complex
Laboratory studies of animals
Animals in natural food environments
Human macronutrient regulation
Do humans select an intake target?
Response to variation in dietary macronutrient balance: protein leverage
Human nutritional ecology
Some relevant frameworks from public health nutrition
Protein leverage and nutrition transitions
Why do humans select low‐protein foods that cause energy over‐consumption?
Bringing it all together: complex systems
Conclusions
References
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