Читать книгу Tuttle Balinese-English Dictionary - Norbert Shadeg - Страница 7
ОглавлениеIntroduction
Besides new text by the author, this dictionary draws from various sources:
Eerste Proeve van een Balineesch-Hollandsch Woordenboek (Utrecht, 1876) by R. van Eck.
Kawi-Balineesch-Nederlandsch Woordenboek (1897–1912) by H.N. van der Tuuk.
English-Balinese-Indonesian Vocabulary (Dénpasar, 1977) by the author.
Kamus Bali Indonésia (Dénpasar, 1978), undertaken by a committee of Balinese scholars, in particular Dr Hi Wayan Warna.
A Balinese-English Dictionary Vols.1&2 (Aberdeen, 1979) by C.C. Barber.
Dr I.G.M. Tantra and Mr N. Putra, B.A., M.Sc. (Balinese-speaking research students at the University of Aberdeen).
a number of small books in Balinese, including the 1928 edition of the Bible Society’s translation of the gospel of St Luke.
Cross-references are provided to places where a fuller meaning is given. These cross-references are unavoidable, because of the uncertainty of Balinese spelling, and because of the alteration (in grammatical structure) of the initial consonant of verbs which have their basic form (S-form, the simple base) and their transitive form (N-form) in which the initial consonant is nasalized.
A large number of N-forms are listed, together with the S-form. Verbs made with the prefixes ka- and ma- are omitted when their meaning is obvious; where the ka- verbs (with or without suffixes) are not simply the passive forms of the verbal base, they have been included. The ma- verbs are intransitive verbs made from nouns or adjectives (or other verbs), whose meaning is easily deduced from the meaning of the base.
When a word has been formed from its base (by prefix or suffix or both, or by two prefixes), it is listed as it occurs, but separated from the prefixes or suffixes with hyphens (e.g. ka-tedun-an); the meaning is then given, and then its base with its meaning in its proper alphabetical order. If a phonetic change is involved, the separate parts are given in parentheses: (=tiru-an) for tiron. The hyphens are not part of the spelling or pronunciation, but they help to reduce the amount of repetition. When a ma- verb is an intransitive form, the hyphen is used; but when the ma- is the N-form of a word with the prefix pa-, the hyphen is omitted.
The words are put in normal alphabetical order, except that ng and ny are treated as indivisible units, words with ng after all the words with n, and ny after the last word with ng (for ng and ny see Spelling, below). In this dictionary, e comes before é as in Balinese dictionaries: sedeng, sedéng, sédeng, sédéng.
Spelling
A mechanical transliteration of the Balinese script is used, not the modern Roman orthography often used in Bali, as the Balinese script is a more suitable medium for representing the language, since it makes the form of the bases and the structure of the grammatical forms philologically more intelligible. The most obvious difference is the writing of (now silent) h at the beginning of words and between vowels, where in many words it corresponds to Javanese and Malay r. The old initial vowels are written a, i, u, é, o. The diacritically marked d, n, s, t and the letters corresponding to the Sanskrit bh, dh, gh, ph, ś, and th are used; since these letters have no distinctive pronunciation, they are listed in the dictionary as if they were d, n, s, t, b, d, g, p, s, t. Like modern Balinese ng is used for [ŋ] and ny for [], but nc and nj are used for nyc and nyj respectively. If in a text n or ņ is used before c or j (e.g. ņ-jalanang), n-c or n-j is used; similarly n-g is used for n followed by g.
The vowels are a, i, u, o, e (pepet) = [ə]; é is used for taléng ([e:, ε:]).Final a is pronounced [ø:] or [ə:], and is so pronounced when a word forms part of a compound; in a few words final - aha has this pronunciation for both a (which are often contracted to -a). The Balinese script does not distinguish this pronunciation, but ä is used arbitrarily for it. After a consonant, iy and uw are written usually with y and w (dwa =duwa, sadiya =sadya); similarly initial w and y with a following vowel are written huw and hiy.
Since the voiced stop in the clusters mb, nd, ngg, nj is pronounced weakly, especially at the beginning of words in N-forms, it is often omitted in writing: gelah/nggelah, ngelah, jalan/njalan, nyalan, etc. They may thus be mistaken for the N-forms of words which begin with h, k, c, s, t, p, which substitute the nasal for the initial consonant and never have a following stop: karya/ngarya, cadang/nyadang.
Variant Spellings
According to Balinese grammarians, the prefixes ha-, ka-, ma-, nga-, pa-, sa- are correctly written thus; in careful speech and reading they are pronounced with a, but usually with e; similarly the a following a reduplicated initial consonant (e.g. ca-canggahan) should be written a, but is usually pronounced, and often written (especially in Roman letters) with e.
In ordinary speech the prefix he (properly he-) before monosyllabic bases is never used, but in writing is used ad libitum, usually with he- (e in Roman spelling), with ha- in the literary language, however. Similarly, the prefixes ha- and ma- + N-form, making transitive verbs, are written and pronounced with a; ha- is only literary, but ma- occurs often in ordinary speech, with verbs with initial p, in the N-form (e.g. mamancing ‘go fishing’), then pronounced with e. The prefix he- (‘one’) is always written and pronounced a.
The correct use of h, w, y between vowels is still not definite; h is usual after a before a, e, é (except gawé for gahé); w is frequent after o and u with a, e, é following; o and u in the second syllable may have h or w in writing, but both are silent, since wo, wu are always pronounced [o/O] and [u]. Similarly y is often written after é and i, and also before é and i in the next syllable.
Final -h ([x]) keeps this sound when a suffix is added and is sometimes written -hh-, but usually cannot be distinguished from the h written between a final vowel and a suffix; y is written between a final é or i and -ang or -an, and w between a final o or u and -ang, -an, -in.
The suffixes -a, -an, -ang, -é, -in originally had a pronounced h, which was assimilated to a final consonant, which was therefore written twice; this still happens in literary style; the same happened with the pronouns hipun and hiya and the Javanese post-position hing; hence nanging, nanghing, nangnging (‘but’). Instances of this doubling will be found in the dictionary. However, double consonants were often written singly, even when one ended and the other began a word; in the Luke text do tkén, for dot tekén (‘desire for’) is found.
Grammatical Notes
To avoid extensive repetition, grammatical descriptions have been over-simplified. The S-form of the verbal base is marked intrans, since it frequently is used thus, even if the verb is transitive; it must be remembered that the S-form of a transitive verb is also the usual imperative, though it is more likely to be passive. This should be remembered when a transitive N-form is given after nouns and adjectives, which are themselves the S-forms of these transitive verbs (passive or imperative). Imperatives are rarely given with -ang.
Though ma- + S-form verbs are intransitive and stative, they are sometimes marked as passive, since their English equivalents are often a passive form.
It would be equally appropriate to label as intrans many of the words marked adj, since it is not possible to distinguish a sentence with a predicative adjective without copula from one with an intransitive verb: sebuné buhu can be translated ‘the nest has been abandoned’ or ‘the nest is an abandoned one.’
In fact, the grammatical categories given are fairly arbitrary. Balinese grammar is sometimes uncertain; for example, ma- verbs may be called ‘nouns,’ when they are in fact relative clauses with unexpressed subject: mabéya ‘(he) collects taxes’ is shortened from hané mabéya ‘(he) who collects-taxes’; or as adjectives: hanak mutang ‘a man in debt’ where mutang =‘is-in-debt’ and the relative pronoun is again omitted.
Levels of Language
In most cases van Eck’s attribution of level has been followed; however, usage has changed in the 100+ years since his dictionary appeared, and is still changing. What he calls High words have often become normal words of no level, and Court words have become merely High or Refined, or even Low. Modern authorities do not agree with each other about levels. Compared with van Eck, the Kamus gives levels for very few words and marks as Low only a few words which can only be used in a Low situation. An unmarked word can be assumed to be usable on all levels. Words marked K (Kawi) are found only in literary or religious contexts and can be regarded as High or Court words.
Raffles
In Vo1. 2 of his History of Java Raffles gives long lists of comparative vocabularies, which he claims were written for him in the Balinese script by competent scholars and transliterated and translated for him. His scholars and printers were perhaps not as competent as Raffles imagined; v.d. Tuuk accepts these vocabularies as an authority, while Barber was suspicious of them all, but corrected their orthography and included them in his dictionary. When these lists are the only source, or when the meaning differs from other authorities, the words are marked with (Raf).
Abbreviations
| abbr | abbreviated, abbreviation |
| adj | adjective |
| Am | American |
| Arab | Arabic |
| Aram | Aramaic |
| adv | adverb |
| aux | auxillary |
| Badung | from the Badung regency |
| Bali | Balinese |
| C | court and literary |
| class | classifier |
| coll | collective |
| compr | comparative |
| conj | conjunction |
| contr | contracted; contraction |
| D | Dutch |
| dem | demonstrative |
| e.g. | example, for example |
| EBali | East Balinese |
| Eng | English esp especially etc. etcetera |
| fem | feminine |
| fig | figurative use, figuratively |
| Fr | French |
| fut | future |
| gen | general |
| Gyanyar | from the Gyanyar regency |
| Gk | Greek |
| H | High usage |
| Heb | Hebrew |
| i.e. | id est |
| imp | imperative |
| indef | indefinite |
| interro | interrogative |
| intrans | intransitive |
| interj | interjection |
| It | Italian |
| Jav | Javanese |
| K | Kawi (literary or religious) |
| Kamus | the Kamus Bali Indonésia |
| Karang | from the Karangasem regency |
| L | Low usage |
| Lat | Latin |
| Lk | the Balinese translation of St Luke’s gospel |
| Lom | from the Lombok region |
| M | Middle usage |
| masc | masculine |
| Mal | Malay |
| n | noun |
| NBali | North Balinese |
| N-formi | base with nasalized initial |
| num | number, numeral, numerical |
| n | noun |
| OBali | Old Balinese |
| ord | ordinal |
| pass | passive |
| past | past tense |
| Pers | Persian |
| pl | plural |
| poet | poetic, used in poetry |
| Port | Portuguese |
| poss | possessive |
| prep | preposition |
| pron | pronoun |
| ps | person(al) |
| 1ps | first person |
| 2ps | second person |
| 3ps | third person |
| Raf | Raffles (from Raffles’ History of Java) |
| R | Refined usage, when H is not required and L is not appropriate |
| rel | relative |
| S | Sanskrit |
| SBali | South Balinese |
| SWBali | Southwest Balinese |
| S-formi | the simple base with unnasalized initial |
| sing | singular |
| sth | something |
| Tabanan | from the Tabanan regency |
| Tam | Tamil |
| Teganan | from the Teganan regency |
| trans | transitive |
| Tuuk | from van der Tuuk’s Woordenboek |
| van Eck | from van Eck’s Woordenboek |
| vb | verb |
| WBali | West Balinese |
Balinese Writing
The native script of Bali is of Indian origin and is ordered on the pattern of the principal Indian alphabets. The writing runs from left to right, and the letters are hung from a line, not written on a line. In this script the basic characters represent syllables, each character representing a consonant followed by the vowel a. By adding a sign above, below, or to left or right, this a is changed to another vowel. There are three signs that stand for vowelless h, ng, and -r at the end of a syllable. Otherwise, if it is necessary to indicate that a consonant has no vowel it is ‘killed’ (matyang) by putting a sign after it (tengenan or hadeghadeg).
When a consonant is followed immediately by another consonant, the second is written in its conjunct form, usually differing in shape, sometimes very considerably. These conjunct consonants are called haksara wrehastra, and are usually written below the preceding one, but sometimes to its right. Since Balinese is written without separating words, these conjunct consonants occur very much more frequently than one would expect from the structure of single words. If a consonant-group would be very awkward to write the first (at the end of a word) is written with tengenan. Three consonants can be written together if the third is r, w, or y, or if the second is s, ş, or p (and ph), since these last are written beside the first, not below it; e.g. ntr, mpr, ngky, ksm. These grouped signs are treated as if they were single letters, the vowel-signs being written quite normally with them, the vowel being pronounced with the last consonant. (This can be disconcerting, since é will occur apparently within the preceding word.)
Since the sound-system of Balinese is very simple, it can be written with 18 consonants. These are listed in the alphabet (hanäcaraka), which retains 18 signs of the Kawi alphabet, which had the 47 characters of Sanskrit. In common use, but not included in the hanäcaraka, are the syllables re and le; le only occurs as a syllable, but re has a conjunct form (used at the beginning of a word after a final consonant) and a form as a vowel-sign, used within words (e.g. tresna). These twenty characters are known to all Balinese. The literary language retains and uses the remaining 27 Kawi letters, known only to the learned. These are called haksara wayah (‘old letters’) and are also used by them in ordinary Balinese as we use capital letters, to indicate words which are proper names or titles of important persons: e.g. hanak haghung, senaphati (‘general’), Bhadhung (a place).
The vowel-signs, some of the conjunct consonants, and all the haksara wayah (including the initial vowels) have names. To indicate the presence of vowel-signs, etc., the name is made into a ma- verb; ha alone is called halalung (‘naked ha’) or ha polos (‘simple ha’); hi is ha mahulu, he is ha mahulu pepet, and so forth. A consonant having one or more conjunct consonants is described as magantungan, and one with a following conjunct as magampélan; a consonant followed by r is called maguhungan, and so forth.
Balinese punctuation is erratic and rather rudimentary. A single oblique stroke (carik) may indicate a comma, semicolon, or full stop. A carik is put on either side of a word or letter with the effect of quotation marks, or to separate numerals from letters. A double carik (hadeghadeg) marks the end of what is felt to be a complete statement. A more elaborate sign marks a major division in a prose work (matan titiran hapit carik). The sign papanten is put at the beginning of a piece of prose and is put before and after the title of a prose work. An intricate sign (haksara modré or haksara hanceng) marks the end of every stanza of a poem, and the same (more or less elaborated) before and after the heading of a literary work, especially a poem.
The following lists the hanäcaraka, the conjunct consonants, the consonantal haksara wayah; then the initial vowels (including the long vowels, used only in the literary language), the vowel-signs used with consonants, with their names, and then the punctuation marks.
Hanäcaraka
| Conjunct | name of haksara | ||
| ha | |||
| na | na kojong na nilit | ||
| ca | |||
| ra | guhung cakra | ||
| ka | |||
| da | da lindung | ||
| ta | |||
| sa | |||
| wa | suku kembung | ||
| la | |||
| ma | |||
| ga | |||
| ba | |||
| nga | |||
| pa | |||
| ja | |||
| ya | naniya | ||
| nya | |||
| re | pa rere, pa marere | ||
| le | nga lele |
Haksara Wayah
| ņa | ņa rambat | ||
| cha | cha wayah | ||
| ḑa | ḑa madu | ||
| dha | (The conjunct forms of ḑa and dha are often confused with each other.) | ||
| tha | tha tawa | ||
| ţa | ţa latik | ||
| şa | şa sapa | ||
| şa | şa saga | ||
| gha | gha gora gha rambat | ||
| bha | bha kembang | ||
| pha | |||
| pha |
Initial Vowels
There is no initial e or ē, since this sound is lacking in Sanskrit.
| a | akara | |
| i | ikara | |
| u | ukara | |
| é | ékara | |
| o | okara |
Initial Long Vowels
Initial long vowels are found only in literary works.
| ā | ākara | |
| ī | īkara | |
| ū | ūkara | |
| ai | aikara | |
| au | aukara | |
| rē | ||
| lē |
om ong (ongkara), okara mahalu candra
Medial Vowel-signs
A is inherent in the haksara, so it is not included in the list.
| i | hulu | |
| e | pepet | |
| u | suku | |
| é | taléng | |
| o | taléng tedung | |
| re | keret |
Medial Long Vowels
| ā | tedung | |
| ī | hulu sari | |
| ē | pepet tedung | |
| ū | suku hilut | |
| ai | taléng répha | |
| au | taléng répha tedung | |
| rē | keret tedung |
The signs for medial vowels are invariable in shape, except for tedung and suku, which are also the only ones attached to their consonant.
Tedung
Tedung (in all its uses) is written separate, as in the previous section, with nga, cha, dha, tha, ba, ja, nya (and probably da and pha). To all other consonants it is joined to their final vertical stroke, which is cut off very near the top; when thus attached, it is sometimes written. Thus we have:
| hā | |
| nā | |
| cā | |
| rā | |
| kā | |
| dā | |
| tā | |
| sā | |
| wā | |
| lā | |
| mā | |
| gā | |
| pā | |
| yā |
Tedung is also joined to the conjunct forms of sa, şa, and pa:
| -sā | |
| -şā | |
| -pā |
Tedung is joined also to the haksara wayah:
| ņā | |
| śā | |
| ţā | |
| bhā | |
| ghā |
Suku
Suku is attached to the right-hand side of the foot of its consonant and is normally written as in the previous section, but is written very small below a conjunct consonant written beneath another consonant:
Conjunct r, w, and y
When conjunct r, w, and y are added to a conjunct consonant below another consonant, they are altered; r is put round the group and its right limb is continued up to the top of the letters; w and y are made much smaller:
With conjunct r and y, short and long u (suku) have a different shape:
Signs
Signs which indicate a consonant that ends a syllable (panganggé tengenan):
h bisah, wisah, wisarga
ng cekcek, cecek (see nga for the occasions when it is used)
r surang
tengenan, hadeg-hadeg (indicates that the haksara has no vowel)
ng hulu candra (used only in religious contexts, only over o or m; the learned pronounce o with this sign as om)
Punctuation
Also called pada, pemada (Jav), or palälingga.
carik carik, hadeg-hadeg (please see paragraph five of the section on Balinese writing)
used before direct speech, after a noun or verb which indicates that someone is speaking
papanten (indicates the beginning of a prose paragraph or chapter)
haksara swalita, modré (used at the beginning of a work, especially a poem, and at the end of every stanza of a poem)
matan titiran hapit carik, pasalinan gaguritan (used at the end of a chapter or prose or the end of a poem; it may be used at the beginning of a poem)
A device like this may stand on either side of a title of a work; it is also used on either side of the Sanskrit formula with which a piece of writing begins om awighnam astu ‘God, may it be without harm.’
Numerals
Numerals (hangka) are Indian numerals, used exactly the same way Arabic numerals are used
| 1 | |
| 2 | |
| 3 | |
| 4 | |
| 5 | |
| 6 | |
| 7 | |
| 8 | |
| 9 | |
| 0 |
When the numerals indicate a serial order they have written before and after them.
