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California USA uses a single pistillate cultivar, ‘Kerman’, and one staminate cultivar ‘Peters’ and four rootstocks (P. terebinthus, P. atlantica, P. integerrima, and the hybrid P. atlantica × P. integerrima) (Tous and Ferguson, 1996). ‘Kerman’ was imported from Iran and named for its province of origin and ‘Peters’ for the grower who selected it. California now produces high-yielding, excellent-quality nuts in demand worldwide and supplies >99% of pistachios grown and consumed in the USA (Kallsen et al., 2009). ‘Nazareth,’ ‘Ask’ and ‘Chico’ males are also grown in some locations in California (Parfitt et al., 2012). ‘Owhadi’, ‘Momtaz’, ‘Ohady’, ‘Badami Zarand’, ‘Rezaii’, ‘Pust Piazii’, ‘Kalehghouchi’, ‘Ghermeza’, ‘Tbeahimi’, ‘Ogah’, ‘Wahidi’, ‘Akbari’, ‘Ahmad-Aghaei’ and ‘Rafsanjani’ are the main cultivars in Iran. Several cultivars are grown in Turkey: ‘Uzun’, ‘Kirmizi’, ‘Siirt’, ‘Halebi’, ‘Beyaz ben’, ‘Sultani’, ‘Diğirmi’ and ‘Keten Gömleği’. Syrian cultivars include ‘Red Aleppo’, ‘Achoury’, ‘Alemi’, ‘El Bataury’, ‘Obiad’ and ‘Ayimi’. Pistachio cultivars in Italy are ‘Bianca’ or ‘Napoletana’, which is the dominant cultivar in Sicily (Barone et al., 1997). ‘Sirora’ is an Australian selection (Maggs, 1982). The Australian industry is small, and this cultivar has not been widely distributed. ‘Kastel’ and ‘Rashti’, grown in Israel, resemble ‘Kerman’.

MAJOR BREEDING OBJECTIVES. Synchronized blooming, high production of pollen, large nuts and harvestable yields at a younger age, percentage of shell splitting or preshelled nuts, standard fruit shape and size, and kernel shell, intense taste and a greener kernel, regular bearing, drought and cold resistance, frost tolerance and resistance to Alternaria leaf blight, Botrytis blossom and shoot blight, Botryosphaeria panicle and Verticillium wilt are the main breeding goals (Kaşka, 1990; Tous and Ferguson, 1996; Esmail-Pour, 1998; Parfitt et al., 2005; Kallsen et al., 2007).

BREEDING ACCOMPLISHMENTS. After pistachio was introduced into California (Crane and Maranto, 1988), selected female genotypes from the former Chico Plant Introduction Gardens together with Iranian and Italian selections and male genotypes from the J. Crane selection programme were used to make crosses. Approximately 8000 seedlings were evaluated at three locations on their own roots (Parfitt et al., 2012). Although ‘Kerman’ is widely grown, there are important production and marketing concerns, and to address California’s reliance on a single cultivar, a breeding programme was initiated in 1990 to develop new cultivars. Initially, 1940 progeny from 78 different crosses were produced, and this was followed by another 5470 seedlings from 176 controlled crosses. Replicated advanced selection trails were established in 1997 to test nine selected genotypes for yield and performance. Cultivars were released, i.e. female ‘Golden Hills’ and ‘Lost Hills’ and male ‘Randy’ that had commercial potential and would complement ‘Kerman’ (Kallsen et al., 2009). Although the California programme once focused on precocity (early bearing), nut size, yield, split percentage, and early season harvest, more recently, the emphasis has been on blank and closed-shell nuts and alternate-bearing (Ferguson et al., 1995). Small-scale breeding programmes exist in Australia, Israel and Spain.

Iranian and Turkish breeding programmes have largely been discontinued. The Iranian pistachio industry relies mainly upon a few cultivars that account for 95% of cultivation: ‘Ohady’, ‘Ahmad-Aghaei’, ‘Fandoghi’, ‘Akbari’ and ‘Kalle-Ghoochi’ (Pazouki et al., 2010). Less important Iranian cultivars are ‘Pust Piazii’, ‘Rezaii’ and ‘Badami Zarand’. Breeding in Iran focused on fruit shape and size, percentage of kernel shell and shell splitting. The presence in Kerman province of different ecological conditions has resulted in high genetic diversity (Esmail-Pour, 1998). ‘Ohady’ is an important cultivar in Rafsanjan (Sheibani, 1995); it was selected by Mehdi Ohady during 1941–1951. ‘Kalehghochi’ has high yields and large fruit, and stronger branches than ‘Ohady’ (Esmail-Pour and Rahemi, 1996). Its early blooming makes it susceptible to spring frost damage (Sheibani, 1995).

Turkey is a home of cultivated pistachio and wild pistachio trees are indigenous throughout the Anatolian plateau. The earliest germplasm introductions and plantings were in the Pistachio Institute in 1937 in the province of Gaziantep to supply grafting material, grafted pistachio trees, and female and male genotypes from local orchards to make crosses among these materials. The institute supplies material to the industry, e.g. ‘Uzun’, ‘Kırmızı’, ‘Siirt’, ‘Halebi’, ‘Beyaz ben’, ‘Sultani’, ‘Değirmi’ and ‘Keten Gömleği’ (Ak and Acar, 2001). These cultivars are alternate bearing, and their nuts are small and unattractive in international markets. In 1996, the first detailed breeding study was carried out at the Pistachio Research Institute to obtain new male and female pistachio cultivars from domestic and foreign cultivars (Uzun et al., 2009). ‘Siirt’, ‘Ohady’, ‘Haciserifi’, ‘Kalehghouchi’ and 14 local cultivars have been used as the female, and ‘Uygur’, ‘Atlı’ and ‘Kaşka’ used as the male parent. From ‘Kalehghouchi’ and ‘Akbari’, 3500 F1 hybrid plants and chance seedlings were evaluated. The flowering time of five selected males was more synchronizing and their flowering periods were longer than that of existing male ‘Atlı’, ‘Uygur’ and ‘Kaşka’ (Atlı et al., 1995). As part of this breeding project, 16 female pistachio types have been selected for their special characteristics. Four superior females were selected and compared with ‘Siirt’ and ‘Uzun’ cultivars for yield and quality characteristics. ‘Kalehghouchi’ seedlings and ‘Siirt’ × ‘Atlı’ and ‘Kalehghouchi’ × ‘Uygur’ seedlings were superior. Twenty male genotypes were used to determine the suitable pollinators for the female cultivars ‘Uzun’, ‘Halebi’, ‘Kirmizi’, ‘Siirt’ and ‘Ohady’. Growth rate, flowering time, suitability of the flowering times of the male with female cultivars, the number of flower clusters on secondary branches, the number of flower clusters on a shoot, the number of flowers in a cluster, length of flower clusters, pollen production, viability and germination of pollen and pollen storage period were investigated. The most suitable males for ‘Uzun’, ‘Halebi’, ‘Siirt’ ‘Kirmizi’ and ‘Ohady’ cultivars were determined (Atlı et al., 1995); however, they have not been widely planted.