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As an alternative to traditional vaccinations, the utilization of NPs exhibiting relevant antigenic moieties seems promising. These NPs might come from biological or synthetic sources. Inorganic NPs, polymer NPs, liposomes, virus-like particles (VLPs) NPs, and self-assembled protein NPs are among the antigen carriers currently being studied (Figure 1.2). Many biological systems, including infectious agents and biomolecules, are nanoscale in size [20]. NPs have been injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly, and they have the ability to pass through capillaries [21]. Recent advancements have made it possible to create NPs with distinct physical and chemical characteristics. The shape, size, solubility, surface composition, and so on can all be tuned and manipulated, allowing for the development of NPs with particular biological features. They can also be engineered to include a variety of compounds, including antigens, making them extremely valuable in vaccine development [22, 23]. Antigens can be incorporated into NPs through encapsulation or conjugation [24]. The native structure of antigens can be protected against proteolytic breakdown by NPs, and antigen transportation to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) can be improved [25]. Furthermore, NPs containing antigens have a local depot effect to ensure the presence of antigens in immune cells for a longer period of time [26]. Interestingly, carbon black (CB) NPs, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), poly lactic-co glycolic acid (PLGA) NPs, titanium dioxide (TiO₂) NPs, and silicon dioxide (SiO₂) NPs have all been shown to exhibit intrinsic immunomodulatory properties [27]. In point of fact, once ingested by APCs, these NPs transmit a signal that promote proteolytic degradation and the induction of oxidative stress, resulting in the release of lysosomal contents [28, 29]. These features indicate that NPs could be useful antigen transporters and innate immune stimulators in vaccinations.

Figure 1.2 Antigens are delivered to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) using surface-engineered NPs. Reproduced (adapted) from [30]. Copyright 2018, Frontiers.