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Liposomes, NPs having a phospholipid bilayer, have been used in the pharmaceutical industry since 1960 [31]. NPs have a diameter of 1 to 100 nm (Figure 1.3), whereas antigens or DNA segments have 1 to 10 nm [32]. Therefore, they are susceptible to being absorbed by biological systems, and it is the first step in eliciting immunogenicity. A nanovaccine is composed of NPs and can be composed of protein, lipid, metals, polymers, and other materials. The positive strategy of nanovaccines allows for not only antigen enhancement but also vaccine stability, immunogenicity, and effective target delivery. Due to advancements in nanovaccinology, many nanovaccines have already been licensed for clinical use, and others are in clinical trials [33–35]. Adjuvants and multiepitope antigens may be effectively co-delivered into target cells and APCs using nanovaccines, and the release of antigen in the cytoplasm and antigen cross-presentation can be precisely controlled.

Figure 1.3 The size comparison of various biological systems used in nanovaccinology. Reproduced (adapted) from [36]. Copyright 2016, IntechOpen.